LTBRAR1R' 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALXFOHIJU 
DAVIS 


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a  Contribution  to  aimetitatt  Stalassostapfig. 


THREE  CRUISES 

OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES  COAST  AND  GEODETIC  SURVEY 
STEAMER   "BLAKE" 


IN  THE  GULF  OF  MEXICO,  IN  THE  CARIBBEAN  SEA,  AND  ALONG 

THE  ATLANTIC  COAST  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

FROM   1877   TO    1880. 


ALEXANDER  AGASSIZ. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  n. 


BOSTON  AND  NEW  YORK: 

HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND   COMPANY. 

d)e  Et))er0tlie  Preee,  C'ambrtlrg:r. 

1888. 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNW 

DAVIS 


•  Copyright,  1888, 
Bt  ALEXANDER  AGASSIZ. 

All  rights  reserved. 

t 
[Published  by  permission  of  Carule  P.  Patterson  and  Julids  E.  Hilgakb, 
Superintendents  U.  S.  Coast  aud  Geodetic  Surrey.] 


T%e  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge  : 
Bectrotyped  and  Printed  by  H.  O.  Houghton  A  Oo. 


CONTENTS   OF   VOLUME  II. 


PAOB 

XIV.  The  Wkst  Indian  Fauna 1 

XV.   Sketches  of  the  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Fishes. 

(Figs.  195-224.) 21 

XVI.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Crustacea.    (Figs.  225-259.)  37 

XVII.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Worms.    (Figs.  260-273.)   .    52 

XVIII.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Mollusks 58 

Cephalopods.     (Figs.  274-281) 58 

Gasteropods  and  Lamelxibranchs.     (Figs.  282-312.)     ....     62 

Brachiopods.     (Figs.  313-322.) 75 

ASCIDIANS 77 

Bryozoa.     (Figs.  323-337.) 78 

XIX.  Characteristic  D^ep-Sea  Types.  —  Echinoderms 84 

HOLOTHURIANS.     (Figs.  338-347.) 84 

Sea-Urchins.     (Figs.  348-376.) 88 

Starfishes.     (Figs.  377-387.) 102 

Ophiurans.     (Figs.  388-403.) 109 

Crinoids.     (Figs.  404-421.) 116 

XX.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Acalephs 128 

CTENOPHORiE  AND  Hydromedus^.     (Figs.  422-440.) 128 

HYDROCORALLINyE.     (Figs.  441-448.) 138 

XXI.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Polyps 142 

Halcyonoids  and  Actinoids.    (Figs.  449-461.) 142 

Corals.     (Figs.  462-483.) 148 

XXII.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types. —Rhizopods.    (Figs.  484-519.)  157 
XXIII.  Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Sponges.    (Figs.  520-545.)     170 

List  of  Figures  . •  ^^^ 

Index ' ^^^ 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "BLAKE." 


XIV. 

THE  WEST  INDIAN  FAUNA. 

The  inhabitants  o£  the  abyssal  realm  as  now  known  differ 
far  more  from  the  surface  faunae  than  the  latter  do  from  one 
another,  one  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  of  deep-sea  life 
being  the  fact  that  there  exists  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  a 
fauna  of  almost  exclusively  animal  feeders,  which,  in  addition 
to  preying  upon  one  another,  receive  some  of  their  food  from 
the  organic  matter  living  on  or  near  the  surface  of  the  sea  and 
constantly  falling  to  the  bottom  in  a  decaying  condition.  The 
deep-sea  fishes,  the  moUusks,  Crustacea,  and  other  groups,  are 
nearly  all  carnivorous,  no  algae  being  found  growing  at  any 
depth. 

Deep-sea  forms  are  almost  always  killed  in  the  process  of 
hauling,  either  by  rough  handling  or  else  by  the  heat  of  the 
surface  water.  We  can  scarcely  hope  ever  to  watch  the  habits 
of  the  deep-sea  dwellers,  and  see  them  in  their  natural  atti- 
tudes, and  we  must  be  satisfied  to  imagine  what  these  are 
by  analogy  with  their  shallow-water  allies,  though  many  species 
of  Crustacea,  echinoderms,  polyps,  and  mollusks  have  been  kept 
alive  in  a  casing  of  ice  by  the  naturalists  of  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission.  A  similar  attempt  had  been  made  on  the 
"  Blake  "  with  some  of  the  echinoderms,  but  they  refused  to  be 
deluded  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  by  ice-cold  water  into  the 
belief  that  they  still  lived  in  their  normal  condition. 

Very  frail  deep-sea  animals  are  often  rapidly  transferred  to 
the  surface  from  a  region  where  they  are  subjected  to  a  pres- 
sure of  two  tons  or  more,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that,  after 


2  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 

having  been  thus  drawn  up  from  a  dej^th  of  two  or  three 
miles,  they  should  be  in  a  very  dilapidated  condition.  A  num- 
ber of  the  abyssal  types  among  the  fishes,  moUusks,  Crustacea, 
echinoderms,  and  even  rhizopods,  are  characterized  by  the  loose- 
ness of  their  tissues,  which  allows  the  water  to  permeate  every 
interstice,  and  to  equalize  the  enormous  pressure  under  which 
they  live.  When  this  pressure  is  removed,  the  fishes,  with  their 
flabby  muscles,  tender  skins,  and  semi-cartilaginous  skeletons, 
literally  fall  to  pieces ;  they  suffer  from  the  decomposition  and 
the  dilatation  of  the  air  of  the  swimming  bladder ;  the  eyes 
are  forced  out  of  their  sockets,  and  the  scales  fall  off  from 
the  delicate  skin.  The  moUusks  present  shapeless  masses  diffi- 
cult of  study.  The  Crustacea  seem  to  have .  been  boiled,  and 
their  soft  and  thin  shells  resemble  those  of  their  shallow-water 
congeners  just  after  moulting ;  many  of  the  annelids  and  echi- 
noderms look  as  if  they  had  been  digested  by  some  of  the 
larger  deep-sea  denizens,  while  the  fragile  types  have  lost  their 
delicate  appendages,  or  have  become  crushed  in  the  ascent. 
Yet  we  know  that  a  number  of  species  of  all  these  classes  can 
thrive  under  differences  of  pressure  due  to  such  an  extreme 
bathymetrical  range  as  two  thousand  fathoms ;  but  undoubt- 
edly the  individuals  living  at  these  enormous  depths  have  found 
their  way  there  very  gradually,  or  ascend  and  descend  from  one 
level  to  another  most  leisurely,  so  as  to  become  accustomed  to 
differences  in  pressure. 

Our  information  regarding  the  abyssal  realms  is  far  from 
complete,  and  our  sketch  of  the  natural  history  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  floor  of  the  ocean  should  be  regarded  only  as  a 
preliminary  outline.  Naturally,  our  knowledge  of  some  of  the 
groups  is  more  extended  than  that  of  others,  and  the  results 
obtained  in  any  one  case  may  differ  radically  from  those  reached 
by  the  study  of  less  well  known  groups.  As  in  the  history  of 
the  fauna  of  any  zoological  province,  our  conclusions  are  con- 
stantly modified  by  the  final  results  derived  from  a  more  careful 
study  of  some  special  case.  There  are  of  course  certain  rules 
applicable  to  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  deeper  regions,  but  they 
are  few,  and  liable  to  constant  modifications  from  our  increasing 
knowledgfe. 


THE    WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  3 

In  discussing  the  results  of  the  "  Blake  "  collections,  I  have 
availed  myself  most  freely  of  the  work  done  by  other  expedi- 
tions, as  this  is  indeed  essential  for  the  proper  understanding  of 
the  special  facts  examined.  We  are  only  on  the  threshold 
of  our  knowledge  of  the  species  and  their  exact  distribution 
over  the  sea  bottom ;  nevertheless  the  data  of  the  various  deep- 
sea  expeditions  seem  to  show  that  we  know  enough  to  form  a 
general  idea  of  the  biological  conditions  under  which  these  spe- 
cies exist,  and  that,  judging  from  a  few  better  known  groups, 
our  ideas  are  not  likely  to  be  materially  modified  by  future 
researches. 

This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  West  Indian  fauna,  and 
that  of  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States.  We  may  safely  as- 
sume that  but  little  will  hereafter  be  added  to  our  notions 
of  the  association  of  the  sponges,  polyps,  corals,  echinoderms, 
Crustacea,  and  mollusks,  composing  the  West  Indian  deep-sea 
fauna,  and  making  it  in  certain  groups  by  far  the  richest  in  the 
world.  The  number  of  new  forms  from  the  West  Indian  region 
constitutes  such  a  vast  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  the  princi- 
pal classes  of  invertebrates  of  that  fauna  as  to  revolutionize  our 
ideas  of  geographical  as  well  as  of  bathymetrical  distribution. 

No  other  region  of  the  ocean  bottom  has  yielded  so  abundant 
a  harvest,  and  we  have  therefore  no  data  elsewhere  sufficiently 
complete  for  comparisons  with  regard  to  geographical  distribu- 
tion. But  for  ascertaining  the  bathymetrical  distribution,  and 
its  bearing  on  the  determination  of  the  probable  depth  in  which 
strata  of  former  ages  containing  corals  were  deposited,  the  ma- 
terial at  hand  is  of  great  importance. 

I  cannot  give  a  better  idea  of  the  value  of  the  collections 
brought  together  by  the  "  Blake,"  than  by  contrasting  the  sta- 
tistics of  some  of  the  groups  before  and  after  the  Coast  Survey 
explorations.  I  should  state  that  the  collections  are  as  yet  by  no 
means  fully  worked  out;  but  enough  has  been  done,  even  in 
the  groups  least  advanced,  to  show  the  wonderful  richness  of 
the  collections,  not  only  in  new  forms,  but  also  in  remarkable 
types  of  special  interest. 

Before  the  explorations  of  the  "  Blake  "  we  knew  nothing  of 
the  deep-sea  fishes  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  of  the  Gulf  of 


4  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

Mexico.  Less  than  fifty  years  ago  there  were  not  more  than 
twenty  known  species  of  Crustacea  from  the  West  Indian  region. 
The  "  Blake "  has  added  no  less  than  forty  new  genera  and 
150  new  species  to  those  thus  far  described.  Ten  of  the  genera 
and  nearly  forty  of  the  species  belong  to  the  well-known  Bra- 
chyura,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Stimpson  and  Milne-Edwards 
had,  before  the  explorations  made  by  the  "  Blake,"  apparently 
very  fully  worked  out  the  species  of  this  group  from  the  dredg- 
ings  of  the  "  Hassler  "  and  "  Bibb  " ;  sixteen  genera  and  over 
sixty  species  belong  to  the  less  known  Anomura  ;  and  there  are 
fourteen  genera  and  about  fifty  species  of  Macrura. 

Among  the  mollusks  the  total  number  of  littoral  species  re- 
corded by  Adams  and  D'Orbigny  is  580,  as  compared  with  461 
collected  by  the  "  Blake."  This  number  also  includes  210  lit- 
toral species,  while  251  are  abyssal.  The  number  of  genera  rep- 
resented by  the  former  is  about  110,  while  some  98  genera  are 
found  in  the  "  Blake  "  collection.  These  numbers  are  of  course 
approximate. 

The  immense  collections  of  echinoderms  are  peculiarly  inter- 
esting. Of  the  deep  -  sea  echinoderms  the  most  striking  are 
the  Elasipoda,  a  new  order  of  holothurians,  established  by  Dr. 
Th^el  for  the  reception  of  these  extraordinary  and  aberrant 
types,  of  which  no  less  than  fifty-two  species  were  discovered  by 
the  "  Challenger  "  expedition.  Previous  to  that  time  three  spe- 
cies of  the  group  were  known,  one  from  the  Kara  Sea,  and 
two  subsequently  found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic 
by  the  Norwegian  North  Atlantic  expedition.  The  "Blake" 
dredged  about  nine  species  of  this  remarkable  order,  three  of 
which  were  unknown  before. 

There  are  now  described  eighty-three  species  of  sea-urchins 
from  the  Caribbean  fauna.  Of  these,  eleven  were  added  by  the 
dredgings  of  Count  Pourtales  in  the  "  Bibb  "  and  "  Hassler," 
nineteen  were  discovered  by  the  "  Blake,"  and  thirteen  species 
previously  known  from  other  districts  were  obtained  for  the  first 
time  in  the  Caribbean  and  adjoining  seas  by  the  Coast  Survey 
expeditions,  so  that  the  list  of  species  has  been  more  than 
doubled  by  the  dredgings  made  since  1876. 

The  "Blake"  dredged  fifty -four  species    of   starfishes,   of 


THE    WEST   INDIAN    FAUNA.  5 

which  forty-six  were  undescribed.  As  the  total  number  of  spe- 
cies does  not  exceed  five  hundred,  the  value  of  these  additions 
to  the  group  is  readily  estimated.  Prior  to  the  explorations  of 
the  "  Blake,"  twenty-seven  species  had  been  described  from  the 
Caribbean  region,  so  that  the  number  of  the  species  character- 
istic of  the  district  has  been  nearly  trebled ;  plainly  showing 
that  the  deep-water  starfish  fauna  is  far  richer  and  more  varied 
than  that  of  the  littoral  district. 

The  collection  of  ophiurans  is  perhaps  the  largest  ever  made. 
They  seem  to  play  a  very  important  part  in  determining  the 
facies  of  a  fauna.  They  occur  everywhere,  at  all  depths,  and 
often  in  countless  numbers.  I  hardly  think  we  made  a  single 
haul  which  did  not  contain  an  ophiuran.  They  often  came  up 
when  the  trawl  brought  nothing  else.  In  some  places  the  bot- 
tom must  have  been  paved  with  them,  just  as  the  shallows  are 
sometimes  paved  with  starfishes  and  sea-urchins,  and  many  spe- 
cies hitherto  considered  as  extremely  rare  have  been  found  to  be 
really  abundant.  Most  of  the  deep-sea  Atlantic  species  obtained 
by  the  "  Challenger  "  have  been  rediscovered  in  large  numbers. 
Such  rare  species  as  Sigsheia  murrhina,  OpMozona  nivea, 
Hemieuryale  pustulata,  and  Ophiocamax  hystrix,  were  found 
in  plenty.  As  representatives  of  northern  seas  may  be  cited 
Astronyx  Loveni,  while  the  great  rarities  are  represented  by 
a  single  specimen  of  Ophiophyllum,  Of  Astrocnida  isidis, 
of  which  only  three  specimens  were  known,  we  have  half  a 
dozen.  A  large  Pectinura  recalls  the  shallow  fauna  of  the 
East  Indies,  while  a  new  Ophiernus  brings  to  mind  the  antarctic 
deep-sea  forms.  Finally,  the  supposed  existence  of  simple 
armed  Astrophytons  is  fully  confirmed  by  the  various  species  of 
Astroschema,  and  by  a  new  species  of  Ophiocreas. 

The  diligent  search  of  Pourtales  in  the  Straits  of  Florida,  the 
"  Hassler  "  expedition,  the  "  Challenger  "  explorations,  and  the 
expeditions  of  the  "  Blake,"  have  evidently  brought  up  the 
majority  of  the  species  of  ophiurans ;  for  in  the  enormous  mass 
of  specimens  gathered  in  the  last  "  Blake"  expedition  and  by 
the  "  Albatross  "  the  number  of  new  species  was  small. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  the  explorations  of  the  "  Blake  "  and  the 
subsequent  dredgings  of  the  "  Albatross  "  only  added  one  species 


6  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

to  the  number  of  West  Indian  stalked  crinoids.  Three  species 
of  Pentacrinus  were  known  before  the  explorations  of  the 
"  Blake,"  —  two  of  Rhizoerinus,  and  one  of  the  strange  Ho- 
lopus.  The  importance  of  the  collection  of  the  free  feather-star 
crinoids  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that,  while,  according  to 
Mr.  Carpenter,  the  number  of  species  of  Caribbean  Comatulse 
is  about  fifty-five,  three  quarters  of  them  were  first  obtained 
by  the  "  Blake." 

But  although  the  species  of  stalked  crinoids  were  known,  the 
material  formerly  at  the  disjDosal  of  naturalists  was  most  scanty, 
and  some  two  dozen  specimens  of  Pentacrinus  represented  prob- 
ably the  whole  available  supply.  It  was  the  fortune  of  the 
"  Blake  "  to  make  the  first  extensive  collections  of  this  ancient 
genus ;  they  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  late  Sir  Wy  ville 
Thomson,  and  finally  passed  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  P.  H.  Car- 
penter, who  worked  out  the  anatomy  of  the  genus  in  an  ad- 
mirable manner.  In  the  Eastern  Atlantic  a  very  fine  species 
of  the  genus  (P.  Wy  ville- Thomsoni)  was  discovered  by  Gwyn 
Jeffreys  in  the  "  Porcupine,"  off  Portugal,  in  about  900  fathoms. 

Innumerable  fragments  of  stems  of  Pentacrinus,  and  portions 
of  the  arms,  frequently  came  up  in  our  earlier  dredgings,  but 
we  were  not  fortunate  enough  until  the  last  day  of  the  first 
expedition  to  obtain  a  single  entire  specimen,  though  off  Bahia 
Honda  we  dredged  a  young  Holopus  in  excellent  condition. 
When  Sigsbee  afterwards  discovered,  off  Havana,  the  Pentacri- 
nus ground,  a  short  distance  from  the  Morro  Light,  at  a  depth 
varying  from  42  to  242  fathoms,  he  brought  up  about  twenty 
perfect  specimens  of  Pentacrinus  of  all  sizes,  besides  a  mass  of 
fragments. 

During  the  winter  of  1879-80,  Commander  Bartlett  also 
found  Pentacrinus  off  Santiago  de  Cuba,  and  off  Kingston,  Ja- 
maica, and  a  number  of  specimens  of  Rhizoerinus  were  obtained 
by  the  "  Blake,"  but  only  a  few  were  in  perfect  condition.  Of 
Holopus  a  mutilated  specimen  was  dredged.  It  was  collected 
off  Montserrat,  and  escaped  my  attention  ;  as,  being  on  the 
lookout  for  black  Holopus,  I  did  not  notice  this  imperfect 
whitish  specimen,  which  must  have  been  alive,  among  the  nu- 
merous Pentacrini  with  which  it  came  up.     During  the  second 


THE    WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  7 

cruise  our  collection  of  Pentacrini  became  very  extensive ;  we 
found  them  at  Montserrat,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Guadeloupe, 
and  Barbados,  in  such  numbers  that  on  one  occasion  we  brought 
up  no  less  than  one  hun(h-ed  and  twenty-four  at  a  single  haul 
of  the  bar  and  tangles.  We  must  indeed  have  swept  over 
actual  forests  of  Pentacrini,  crowded  together  much  as  they 
may  have  lived,  at  certain  localities,  both  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, during  the  palaeozoic  period. 

The  monograph  of  Allman  on  the  deep-sea  hydroids  of  Flo- 
rida srave  us  the  first  intimation  of  the  wealth  of  forms  which 
flourished  in  deep  water,  forming,  as  Allman  says,  a  special 
province  in  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Hydroida. 
The  collection  was  noted  for  the  large  number  of  undescribed 
species,  and  the  small  percentage  which  could  be  referred  to 
forms  existing  on  the  European  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

Previous  to  the  deep-sea  explorations  we  knew  only  the  shal- 
low-water reef  corals.  The  expeditions  of  Pourtales,  of  the 
"  Hassler  "  and  the  "  Blake,"  have  revealed  to  us  a  whole  fauna 
of  simple  corals  separated  from  the  reef  district  by  a  barren 
zone,  with  not  a  species  in  common  between  the  two  districts. 
There  are  now  over  sixty  simple  deep-sea  corals  known  from  the 
Caribbean  district,  —  nearly  as  many  species  as  there  are  from 
the  reef  area. 

It  is  natural  that,  as  we  pass  from  the  littoral  to  the  conti- 
nental, and  finally  to  the  abyssal  regions,  we  should  find  a  grad- 
ual diminution  of  those  physical  causes  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  consider  as  influencing  the  variation  of  individuals, 
so  that  persistent  types,  as  they  have  been  called,  may  owe 
their  origin  either  to  an  absence  of  modifying  causes,  or  to  an 
inherent  tendency  to  retain  unchanged  their  original  organiza- 
tion. The  animals  we  dredge  from  deep  water  cannot,  from 
the  nature  of  their  surroundings,  be  affected,  or  only  in  a  less 
degree,  in  the  many  ways  which  influence  their  shallow-water 
allies.  We  cannot  suppose  that  they  are  subject  at  great  depths 
to  any  of  the  causes  which  affect  so  powerfully  the  changing 
chromatophores  of  the  littoral  species ;  such  adaptations  as 
those  which  we  find  in  the  animals  of  the  sargasso  weed, 
for  instance,  or  the  littoral  algae,  or  those  living  on  sandy  or 


8  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

muddy  or  gravelly  beaches,  can   hardly  exist  in  the   ooze   of 
the  abysses. 

The  habits  of  many  of  the  deep-sea  dwellers  are  still  those  of 
their  shallow-water  congeners,  and  yet  their  conditions  of  exist- 
ence are  so  different  that  we  can  scarcely  suppose  them  not  to 
have  equal  importance.  The  moUusks,  annelids,  Crustacea,  and 
echinoderms  which  find  shelter  in  the  branches  of  the  deep- 
water  gorgonians,  or  the  cavities  of  the  abyssal  Euplectellae, 
cannot  be  subject  to  the  attacks  of  so  many  enemies  as  those 
which  live  in  shallower  waters. 

The  metamorphoses  of  the  deep-sea  echinoderms,  Crustacea, 
annelids,  and  moUusks  must  to  a  great  extent  be  adapted  to 
their  surroundings.  Embryonic  pelagic  stages  cannot  be  re- 
tained among  the  deep-water  genera ;  these  either  pass  through 
the  so-called  abbreviated  metamorphosis  within  the  egg,  as  in 
some  Crustacea  and  annelids,  or  after  leaving  the  egg  envelopes 
are  kept  in  a  kind  of  marsupium,  as  in  some  echinoderms ;  both 
these  modes  of  development  occur  in  the  littoral  and  shallow- 
water  species.  Neither  is  it  probable  that  the  eggs  of  the  deep- 
sea  fishes  are  pelagic ;  they  may  be  either  too  heavy  to  float, 
or  in  some  families  may  be  attached  to  the  bottom. 

Previous  to  the  deep-sea  explorations  the  collections  made 
near  the  hundred-fathom  line,  or  thereabout,  were  considered  as 
belonging  in  "deep  water,"  so  that,  when  examining  the  early 
lists  published  by  the  English,  Scandinavian,  and  American  nat- 
uralists, we  should  bear  in  mind  that  they  represent  a  fauna 
which  scarcely  extends  beyond  the  limits  of  the  littoral  region 
as  at  present  understood,  and  include  only  the  few  deep-water 
types  which  find  their  way  to  the  junction  of  the  littoral  and 
continental  regions.  Of  course  the  comparisons  made  with  the 
strictly  shore  inhabitants,  or  those  of  adjacent  bathy metrical 
belts,  were  often  interesting,  but  had  not  the  wide  bearing  of 
the  results  of  later  explorations. 

The  bathymetrical  distribution  of  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant types  brings  out  strikingly  the  contrast  between  the  faunae 
of  the  submarine  regions  thus  far  recognized.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  fishes  obtained  by  the  "  Challenger,"  the  "  Blake," 
and  the  "  Albatross,"  shows  that  twenty-six  species  have  a  vei*- 


THE    WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  9 

tical  raDge  of  nine  hundred  fathoms  or  more.  This  vertical 
range  is  probably  limited  to  the  bottom,  except,  perhaps,  in  the 
case  of  pelagic  fishes  allied  to  deep-sea  species,  of  which  the 
habitat  is  always  uncertain.  The  majority  of  fishes,  to  be  sure, 
are  bottom  lovers  when  adult,  but  in  larval  stages,  in  the  vari- 
ous phases  grouped  by  ichthyologists  in  the  family  Leptocepha- 
lidse,  they  are  carried  by  the  Gulf  Stream  and  other  currents, 
and  spread  far  and  wide  over  the  ocean  surface.  Among  the 
flat  fishes  a  transparent  pelagic  embryo  flounder  known  as  Pla- 
gusia  (see  Fig.  78)  passes  under  favorable  circumstances  into 
a  deep-sea  flounder ;  an  allied  species  is  known  on  the  coast  of 
Italy  as  Rhombodichthys. 

It  is  an  interesting  problem  to  ascertain  where  the  young  of 
these  fishes  remain  before  they  become  permanent  inhabitants 
of  deep  water.  The  same  may  be  asked  of  some  of  the  rarer 
pelagic  fishes  occasionally  caught  at  sea,  which  undoubtedly  are 
either  fully  grown  deep-sea  fishes  or  their  young. 

The  greatest  depth  from  which  fishes  have  been  dredged  by 
the  "  Challenger  "  is  2,900  fathoms,  and  from  that  depth  a  sin- 
gle specimen  [Gonostoma  7nicrodon)  was  brought  up.  The  "Al- 
batross "  obtained  from  a  depth  of  2,949  fathoms  a  closely  allied 
fish  {Cyclothone  lusca,  Fig.  196),  and  four  others.  The  "  Talis- 
man "  secured  one  species  from  a  depth  of  4,255  metres,  and  the 
"  Challenger  "  two  from  2,750  fathoms,  three  from  2,500,  and 
one  from  2,650. 

The  larger  part  of  the  Crustacea,  both  in  the  West  Indian 
region  and  off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  were 
brought  from  a  depth  of  less  than  500  fathoms.  Out  of  about 
100  species  of  Brachyura,  only  two  were  dredged  below  500 
fathoms ;  from  about  75  species  of  Anomura,  22  were  taken  at 
or  below  500  fathoms,  five  below  1,000  fathoms,  and  one  below 
2,000  fathoms ;  while  among  sixty  species  of  Macrura  thirty 
are  recorded  as  taken  below  500  fathoms,  and  thirteen  below 
1,000  fathoms. 

The  maximum  range  of  the  Crustacea  does  not  seem  to  be  as 
great  as  that  in  other  groups  of  invertebrates.  In  the  Carib- 
bean, only  five  species  have  a  range  of  nearly  1,000  fathoms, 
and  about  the  same  number  one  of  500  fathoms. 


10  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

The  bathymetrical  range  of  the  mollusks  is  also  connected 
with  a  wide  geographical  extension.  According  to  Mr.  Dall,  if 
we  consider  the  species  dredged  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  north 
of  a  line  drawn  from  Hatteras  to  Madeira,  by  all  expeditions  up 
to  1883,  at  greater  depths  than  one  thousand  fathoms,  we  find 
that  more  than  forty-two  per  cent  live  in  some  locality  in  less 
than  one  hundred  fathoms. 

These  species  of  mollusks  have  apparently  taken  advantage 
of  the  uniform  conditions  of  existence  in  deep  water,  and  have 
extended  their  range  far  from  their  original  littoral  abode. 
There  is  a  tolerable  number  of  species,  evidently  unchanged, 
which  occur  all  the  way  from  a  few  fathoms,  on  the  Florida 
coast,  to  two  thousand  fathoms  in  the  adjacent  deeps.  A  better 
knowledge  of  the  littoral  fauna  of  the  tropics  would  undoubt- 
edly increase  this  percentage.  We  also  notice  that  the  per- 
centage of  the  genera  or  families  peculiar  to  the  continental  and 
abyssal  regions  is  small. 

The  sea-urchins  and  starfishes  have  their  fullest  develop- 
ment in  the  continental  zone,  and  there  we  find  already  many  of 
the  genera  and  families  which  have  given  so  characteristic  an 
aspect  to  the  fauna  of  deep  waters.  Beyond  that  region  live 
the  eminently  deep-sea  types  of  the  Pourtalesise  and  Ananchy- 
tidse,  associated  with  a  few  starfishes  and  the  strange  order  of 
holothurians,  the  Elasipoda.  The  ophiurans  appear,  of  all  the 
echinoderms,  to  flourish  best  in  the  deepest  waters  from  which 
members  of  the  class  have  as  yet  been  dredged.  The  bathy- 
metrical range  of  many  of  the  sea-urchins  and  ophiurans  is  very 
great,  and  extremes  of  depth  extending  to  two  thousand  fath- 
oms or  more  are  not  uncommon. 

The  stalked  crinoids,  as  has  been  shown  by  Carpenter,  are  not 
strictly  abyssal  types  ;  on  the  contrary,  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
them  have  been  brought  up  from  depths  of  less  than  five  hun- 
dred fathoms,  —  somewhat  deeper  than  the  limit  of  the  conti- 
nental zone.  As  stated  by  Carpenter,  out  of  the  thirty-two 
recent  species  of  stalked  crinoids,  nine  species  may  be  called 
littoral,  living  as  they  do  at  depths  of  less  than  one  hundred 
fathoms. 

Comatulae  were  dredged  at  fifty-seven  out  of  the  two  hundred 


THE   WEST   INDIAN   FAUNA.  11 

stations  occupied  during  one  season's  work.  Nearly  all  of  tnem 
were  in  comparatively  shallow  water,  L  e.  in  depths  of  less  than 
two  hundred  fathoms.  On  three  occasions  the  depth  exceeded 
three  hundred  fathoms. 

These  facts  agree  well  with  the  results  of  the  "  Challenger  " 
dredgings,  which  yielded  Comatulae  at  twenty  stations  only 
where  the  depth  was  more  than  two  hundred  fathoms.  One 
may  fairly  conclude,  therefore,  that  these  animals  are  essentially 
inhabitants  of  shallow  water.  The  crinoids  form  a  striking 
exception  to  the  rule,  which  holds  good  among  many  of  the 
other  groups,  that  the  more  ancient  types  also  have  a  wide 
range  in  depth. 

The  bathymetrical  (distribution  of  the  corals  is  such  that  we 
can  readily  separate  the  species  found  in  depths  of  less  than  one 
hundred  fathoms,  where  they  live  in  the  region  of  debris  which 
lies  between  the  reefs  and  the  rocky  or  muddy  bottoms.  But 
here  again  there  is  no  sharp  line  of  demarcation  in  the  distribu- 
tion between  the  continental  and  the  deeper  zones,  though  the 
abyssal  regions  contain  a  comparatively  smaller  number  of  spe- 
cies than  the  continental  slope.  They  flourish  upon  the  continen- 
tal slope  only  on  sea  bottoms  which  are  free  from  accumulating 
silt,  and  remote  from  flat  muddy  shores  and  from  the  influence 
of  great  rivers ;  the  branching  types  prefer  a  rocky  or  stony 
bottom,  while  the  simple  types  thrive  on  shelly  or  oozy  bottom. 
It  is  on  this  slope  that  we  also  meet  with  the  greatest  number 
of  novelties  among  the  gorgonians  and  pennatulids,  while  spe- 
cially characteristic  of  the  deeper  regions  is  the  family  of  Um- 
bellulae. 

The  calcareous  and  horny  sponges,  of  which  our  commercial 
sponge  is  a  good  representative,  are  eminently  littoral  forms. 
Beyond  that  depth  the  bright-colored  sponges  are  replaced  by 
the  hosts  of  siliceous  sponges  which  live  buried  in  the  mud,  some 
of  them  anchored  by  their  bundles  of  gigantic  spicules  deep  in 
the  ooze,  which  also  envelops  them  in  a  thick  coating  of  fine 
mud  so  closely  held  by  the  network  of  the  skeleton  that  care- 
ful preparation  alone  brings  out  the  wonderful  beauty  of  their 
structure.  An  Euplectella  when  first  brought  up  looks  like  a 
mere  mud-lined  cylinder,  and  gives  no  idea  of  the  exquisite  tra- 
cery formed  by  the  siliceous  skeleton. 


12  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

The  sponges  also  seem  specially  to  dwell  upon  the  continen- 
tal slopes,  and  here  it  is  that  the  kingdom  of  brightly  colored 
sponges  displays  its  splendor  of  yellow,  orange,  red,  and  brown. 
The  sponge  zone  is  comparatively  narrow  on  the  bank  of  Flo- 
rida, where  perhaps  it  takes  its  greatest  development  in  the 
districts  explored  by  the  "  Blake  ;  "  it  disappears  at  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  fathoms,  sometimes  before,  particularly  where 
the  bottom  affords  favorable  conditions  for  the  deposition  of  silt 
or  ooze,  which  is  destructive  to  the  development  of  all  except 
the  siliceous  sponges. 

The  Lithistidse  and  Hexactinellidse  do  not  occur  in  the  littoral 
zone,  while  the  other  families,  though  often  extending  into  deep 
water,  also  run  into  the  littoral  zone,  but  take  their  principal 
development  between  one  hundred  and  two  hundred  fathoms. 

The  dredgings  of  the  "  Blake  "  reached  from  shallow  water, 
generally  within  the  hundred-fathom  line,  to  the  abyssal  depths 
of  the  same  area.  These  dredgings  therefore  give  us  terms  of 
comparison  for  the  inhabitants  of  all  depths  of  the  same  region, 
many  of  which  are  missing  from  the  collections  of  the  other 
deep-sea  explorations,  as  they  ceased  work  when  approaching 
the  shore  line. 

We  are  thus  able  to  trace  far  more  accurately  than  we  could 
from  other  collections,  not  only  the  species  which  are  merely 
littoral  and  have  migrated  into  deeper  water,  often  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  their  original  littoral  habitat,  but  also 
those  which  after  migration  have  become  modified  so  as  to  form 
the  characteristic  faunal  inhabitants  of  the  continental  and  abys- 
sal regions,  and  those  cosmopolitan  species,  assumed  to  be  of 
arctic  or  antarctic  origin,  which  have  an  immense  geographical 
range  over  the  whole  bottom  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 
The  last  may  be  considered  stragglers  or  colonies,  which  have 
found  their  way,  towards  both  the  littoral  and  abyssal  regions, 
into  faunal  districts  not  strictly  their  own,  according  to  the  dis- 
tance of  deep  water  from  the  shores,  or  the  nature  and  direction 
of  currents.  We  may  thus  get  a  most  striking  contrast  be- 
tween the  faunae  of  adjoining  littoral,  continental,  and  abyssal 
regions.  This  is  shown  by  palseontological  evidence  from  dis- 
tricts corresponding  to  the  shallower  continental  regions  of  our 
day. 


THE    WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  13 

In  the  experience  of  the  "  Blake "  the  greatest  wealth  of 
specimens,  or  the  principal  treasures  of  the  expedition,  were  not 
dredged  from  the  deepest  waters  of  West  Indian  or  Atlantic 
areas.  It  was  mainly  upon  the  continental  slopes,  near  the 
five-hundred-fathom  line,  where  food  is  most  abundant,  or  the 
slopes  are  washed  by  favorable  currents,  that  the  richest  har- 
vests came  up  in  the  trawl.  Several  places  really  phenom- 
enal from  their  richness  were  met  with  by  the  "  Blake,"  —  off 
Havana,  to  the  westward  of  St.  Vincent,  off  Frederichstaed,  off 
the  Tortuffas  where  the  Gulf  Stream  strikes  the  southern  extrem- 
ity  of  the  Florida  Reef,  and  off  Cape  Hatteras.  We  might  also 
name  the  remarkable  spots  found  by  the  "  Challenger  "  off 
Japan  and  off  Zamboanga,  and  the  rich  dredgings  of  Pourtal^s 
on  the  plateau  which  bears  his  name.  We  may  safely  say  that 
the  abundance  of  life  in  the  many  favored  localities  of  the 
ocean  far  surpasses  that  of  the  richest  terrestrial  faunal  districts. 
The  most  thickly  populated  tropical  jungle  does  not  compare  in 
wealth  of  animal  or  vegetable  life  with  a  marine  district  such  as 
a  coral  reef,  or  some  of  the  assemblages  mentioned  above. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  give  a  good  picture  of  the  animals 
which  make  up  the  fauna  characteristic  of  certain  well-defined 
regions  until  we  have  the  completion  of  the  reports  by  the  dif- 
ferent specialists  who  have  kindly  consented  to  work  up  the 
collections  of  the  "  Blake."  We  may,  however,  call  attention 
in  a  general  way  to  their  geographical  and  bathymetrical  dis- 
tribution. There  can  be  no  greater  difference,  for  instance, 
than  that  which  exists  between  the  animals  associated  in  deep 
water  on  the  rocky  bottom  upon  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Florida  Reef,  on  the  Pourtales  Plateau,  with  its  predominance 
of  corals,  Rhizocrinus,  and  starfishes,  and  those  found  in  the 
calcareous  ooze  of  the  trough  of  the  Gulf  Stream  (lamelli- 
branchiates,  holothurians,  etc.) ;  and  again  in  the  association  of 
the  masses  of  Gorgonise,  Saleniae,  and  Terebratulse,  off  the  north 
coast  of  Cuba,  brought  up  in  a  single  haul  of  the  trawl.  Nor 
can  there  be  a  greater  contrast  than  between  the  inhabitants  of 
the  pteropod  ooze  in  deep  water  off  the  west  end  of  Santa 
Cruz,  with  its  preponderance  of  Phormosomae,  of  Asthenoso- 
mse,  and  Hyalonemae,  and  those  of  the  forests  of  Pentacrini 


14  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE." 

and  Gorgoniae,  and  the  accompanying  Comatulse  and  Ophiuridae, 
living  in  such  numbers  on  the  windward  coast  of  St.  Vincent. 

We  may  contrast,  again,  the  deep-water  fauna  off  the  Tortu- 
gas,  in  the  coral  ooze,  mainly  made  up  of  a  most  characteristic 
association  of  fishes  and  Crustacea,  with  the  hauls  in  deep  water 
at  special  localities,  consisting  entirely  of  thousands  of  specimens 
of  single  species,  either  of  ophiurans,  or  of  sea-urchins,  or  of 
feather-stars,  or  of  crustaceans,  or  of  gorgonians. 

Take  again  the  bottom  around  the  ridges  between  the  West 
India  Islands,  or  that  along  the  course  of  the  Gulf  Stream  off 
the  Carolinas,  which  are  swept  nearly  clear  of  all  animal  life, 
and  compare  their  inhabitants  with  the  rich  and  varied  fauna  of 
the  same  depths  upon  the  continental  shelf  farther  north,  and 
along  the  western  shelf  of  the  Windward  Islands,  on  the  lee 
side,  in  the  Caribbean ;  or  compare  these  faunae  in  turn  with 
the  mass  of  animal  life,  mainly  composed  of  gorgonians  and 
calcareous  and  horny  sponges,  found  upon  the  broad  plateau 
on  the  west  of  Florida  and  on  the  Yucatan  Bank ;  there  can  be 
no  greater  contrasts  than  those  of  the  narrowly  circumscribed 
areas  I  have  mentioned,  where  all  the  animals  belong  to  the 
West  Indian  fauna  taken  as  a  whole.  This  clearly  indicates 
radical  faunal  contrasts  in  very  limited  areas,  which  differ  prin- 
cipally in  the  character  of  the  bottom,  and  where  the  physical 
conditions,  such  as  temperature,  depending  mainly  upon  cur- 
rents and  winds,  are  in  striking  opposition  within  comparatively 
moderate  distances. 

But  by  far  the  most  marked  contrast  is  perhaps  presented  by 
the  reef  fauna  to  that  which  immediately  follows  it  towards 
deeper  water.  None  of  the  corals  of  the  most  abundant  fami- 
lies or  species  characteristic  of  the  West  Indian  reefs  extend  to 
any  considerable  depth,  and  simple  corals,  which  form  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  deep-sea  fauna,  are  not  represented  at  aU  in  the 
Florida  reef  fauna.  It  was  on  the  slopes  of  the  rocky  plateau 
stretching  into  deep  water  off  the  Florida  reefs  that  Pourtales 
first  dredged  the  extraordinary  assemblage  of  ancient  animals 
which  constitute  the  continental  fauna,  succeeding  in  depth  the 
reef  fauna  just  mentioned.  The  contrast  between  the  littoral 
fauna  of  the  tropics  and  that  of  the   continental  and  abyssal 


THE   WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  15 

regions  is  far  greater  than  that  between  the  inhabitants  of  the 
same  regions  in  the  temperate  or  arctic  provinces.  This  is 
readily  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  the  cold. water  of  the 
abyssal  regions,  with  its  characteristic  animals,  approaches  nearer 
the  shore  as  we  go  north  within  the  continental  region,  so  that 
the  littoral  fauna  of  the  arctic  circle  lies  practically  under  the 
same  conditions  of  temperature  as  the  abyssal  in  the  tropics,  or 
the  continental  in  the  temperate  zones.  That  is,  the  divisions 
of  these  fauual  regions  are  to  be  determined  more  by  tem- 
perature than  by  depth,  although  of  course  the  temperature 
depends  upon  the  depth  and  upon  the  currents  of  the  ocean. 
Below  a  depth  of  seven  to  eight  hundred  fathoms,  correspond- 
ing to  a  temperature  of  40°  F.,  we  pass  into  the  abyssal  regions, 
while  upon  the  continental  slope  at  a  depth  of  about  150  fath- 
oms we  reach  the  lower  limit  of  the  littoral  region. 

One  of  the  first  points  noted  by  Loven  in  reference  to  the 
few  deep-sea  types  occasionally  brought  up  from  various  quar- 
ters of  the  Atlantic  was  their  wide  geographical  range  ;  and  he 
first  distinctly  formulated  the  theory  of  the  uniformity  of  an 
abyssal  fauna  extending  in  the  Atlantic  from  the  arctic  to  the 
antarctic  regions,  with  a  somewhat  modified  fauna  at  the  two 
poles,  —  a  theory  which  has  been  slightly  changed  by  later  deep- 
sea  explorations.  Loven's  theory  seemed  to  give  a  most  natural 
explanation  of  the  marked  similarity,  often  noticed  by  vari- 
ous naturalists,  between  a  number  of  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
invertebrates.  It  was  therefore  of  the  greatest  interest  when 
Pourtales  dredged  in  the  deep  water  of  the  Straits  of  Florida 
the  little  Rhizocrinus  discovered  by  Sars  on  the  coast  of  Norway, 
and  when  subsequent  explorations  of  the  "  Blake  "  brought  to 
light  a  large  number  of  boreal  types  in  the  deep  water  of  the 
Caribbean  district,  and  ofiE  our  eastern  coast.  Professor  Smitt, 
who  examined  our  collection  of  the  Bryozoa  from  the  West 
Indian  district,  speaks  of  the  interest  he  felt  in  finding  well- 
known  Scandinavian  forms  among  these  tropical  and  antarc- 
tic types.  The  range  of  many  of  the  Bryozoa  is  very  wide. 
More  than  ten  Caribbean  species  are  found  in  the  North  At- 
lantic, and  an  equal  number  extend  to  the  arctic  regions  ; 
eight  are    Australian,  and  four  belong   also   to  the  Red  Sea. 


16  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

About  as  many  species  are  identical  with  those  of  the  An- 
tarctic Sea  and  the  southern  extremity  of  South  America.  The 
species  which  attain  the  greatest  depth  are  usually  those  which 
have  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution,  generally  with  an 
arctic  or  antarctic  connection,  or  they  may  be  species  dating 
back  to  the  tertiary  and  cretaceous  periods. 

The  similarity  of  the  holothurians  of  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions  has  been  recognized  by  Theel,  but  no  species  are  com- 
mon to  the  two  seas ;  it  is  therefore  not  probable  that  there  is 
any  interchange  between  the  fauna  of  those  distant  regions, 
although  in  former  ages  such  a  connection  may  have  existed 
from  the  wider  geographical  range  of  their  progenitors ;  it  is 
interesting  to  note  in  this  respect,  that  in  the  Psolidte,  which 
find  their  way  into  very  deep  water,  and  have  representatives  in 
the  tropic,  temperate,  and  arctic  zones,  it  is  often  most  difficult 
to  draw  the  specific  limits.  Still  there  are  slight  differences,  in- 
dications of  the  changed  physical  conditions  and  various  modes 
of  life,  which  have  caused  the  species  to  disappear  from  the  in- 
termediate localities.  The  same  resemblance  is  noticed  among 
the  sea-urchins,  the  starfishes,  and  the  ophiurans. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the  geographical 
extension  of  some  genera  is  that  of  certain  species  of  the  family 
Lithodina.  Professor  Sidney  I.  Smith  says  :  "  These  Crustacea 
have  been  known  as  inhabitants  only  of  the  arctic  and  antarctic 
regions,  living  in  the  littoral  zone ;  but  now  they  have  been 
found  under  the  tropics,  the  only  difference  being  that  in  this 
latter  locality  they  have  contrived  to  find  congenial  conditions 
of  existence  by  abandoning  their  shallow- water  life  and  betaking 
themselves  to  the  cool  depths  of  over  1,000  metres.  This  fact 
is  not  without  its  interest,  showing  us  how  some  forms  can 
spread  from  the  frozen  seas  of  the  north  to  the  seas  of  the 
tropics,  and  so  from  one  pole  to  the  other ;  altering  their 
conditions  of  life  as  necessity  demands,  and  resuming  their  old 
habits  when  the  opportunity  to  do  so  again  occurs." 

Several  species  of  sea-urchins  are  cosmopolitan;  a  number 
thus  far  seem  peculiar  to  the  Atlantic  or  to  the  Pacific,  and 
these  types  all  have  a  great  bathymetrical  distribution,  or  are 
representatives  of  fossil  families  that  go  back  to  the  palaeozoic, 


THE   WEST   INDIAN    FAUNA.  17 

secondary,  or  tertiary  times.  This  extension  of  geographical 
range  in  the  case  of  so  many  of  the  species  of  the  Caribbean 
fauna  is  most  instructive.  As  has  been  observed  in  several 
groups  of  invertebrates,  and  in  fishes,  the  presence  of  identi- 
cal species  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  points 
to  a  comparatively  recent  communication  between  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  while  the  presence  of  cosmopolitan  species  at  such 
distant  points  as  the  Caribbean,  Australia,  and  the  Red  Sea  in- 
dicates a  connection  which  could  have  been  effected  only  by 
migration  on  the  floor  of  the  ocean  or  in  the  track  of  currents. 

The  sponges  apparently  have  a  wide  geographical  distribu- 
tion, many  of  them  being  cosmopolitan.  A  number  of  mol- 
lusks  also  have  an  extraordinary  geographical  range,  from 
Northern  Europe  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  or  to  Patagonia. 
Others  are  found  in  the  seas  of  Great  Britain,  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  in  the  Southern  Ocean.  Others  again  are 
denizens  of  the  arctic  and  antarctic  seas,  or  extend  from  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Pacific  to  the  Kerguelen  Islands. 

A  number  of  species  of  deep-sea  corals  and  gorgonians  ex- 
tend northward  in  deep  water  from  the  Caribbean  district  along 
the  east  coast  of  the  United  States.  A  few  species  of  simple 
corals  like  Flabellum  and  Fungia  have  a  great  geographical  and 
bathymetrical  range.  Half  a  dozen  species  of  corals  are  com- 
mon to  the  northern  seas  of  Europe  and  the  Straits  of  Florida. 
From  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  corals,  and  their  affin- 
ity with  the  tertiary  fossils  of  Italy,  Pourtales  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  tertiary  deep-sea  fauna  of  Europe  has  as  it  were 
migrated  westward  and  maintained  itself,  while  the  greater  part 
of  the  contemporaneous  forms  of  the  West  Indian  deep  sea 
have  become  extinct. 

The  collections  obtained  by  the  "  Blake  "  in  the  Caribbean 
district  are  superior,  as  regards  the  number  of  duplicates,  to 
those  made  by  the  "  Challenger."  Many  species  occur,  not  only 
in  large  numbers,  but  also  at  several  localities ;  so  that  it  has 
been  possible  to  study  their  range  of  variation  in  a  more  satis- 
factory manner  than  hitherto.  This  opportunity  has  proved  of 
immense  value  in  revealing  the  existence  of  many  intermediate 
forms   between   types   which   were   considered   quite    distinct. 


18  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

Many  groups  are  remarkable  for  the  variety  of  their  forms,  so 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  apply  to  them  any  classification, 
even  that  regarded  as  best  established.  From  the  study  of  these 
groujjs,  most  interesting  morphological  and  palseontological  re- 
sults have  been  derived.  Some  of  these  are  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  the  account  of  the  different  zoological  groups.  As 
the  corals  of  the  West  Indies  have  been  carefully  studied  by 
Pourtales,  we  may  dwell  more  at  length  on  the  relations  of  that 
fauna  to  their  precursors  in  the  tertiary  period. 

The  corals  of  the  European  tertiaries  are  so  well  known  from 
the  works  of  Milne-Edwards,  Haime,  Reuss,  Seguenza,  Duncan, 
and  others,  that  we  can  compare  the  living  West  Indian  coral 
faunae,  both  littoral  and  abyssal,  with  that  of  the  European 
tertiaries.  The  resemblance  is  a  striking  one,  and  we  may 
safely,  from  analogy,  reconstruct  the  physical  conditions  which 
existed  in  the  European  tertiary  seas,  and  picture  to  ourselves  the 
depth  of  the  water,  the  purity  of  the  sea,  and  the  intense  aera- 
tion of  the  waters,  far  from  great  bodies  of  fresh  water,  which 
must  have  prevailed  in  those  days  over  areas  where  either  coral 
reefs  or  a  deep-water  fauna  flourished.^ 

Fewer  deep-sea  genera  are  common  to  the  tertiary  and  living 
faunae  of  the  West  Indies  than  to  the  European  tertiary  and  the 
living  West  Indian  fauna.  This  may  be  due  to  smaller  changes 
of  level  in  the  latter  region  than  in  Europe.  Yet  if  we  take  into 
account  the  fact  that  the  numerous  West  Indian  extinct  genera 
belong  to  families  of  deep-sea  corals,  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  there  have  really  been  important  changes  of  level  in  the 
West  Indian  area.     The  presence  of  European  cretaceous  fossils 

*  Tlie   similarity   in   the    deep-water  rence  of  the  recent  stalked  crinoids  in 

types  and  their  fossil  representatives  may  such  deep  water  as  compared  with  that  of 

not  invariably  mean  existence  under  iden-  the  palaeozoic  period  may  be  interpreted 

tical  conditions.     We  have  the  most  sat-  to  represent  the  conditions  necessary  for 

isfactory  evidence  that  the  crinoids  of  the  the  maintenance  of  the  type  down  to  the 

Silurian  deposits   of   the  State    of   New  present  day.    In  the  present  epoch  depth 

York  flourished  in  shoal-like  areas,  and  represents,   as   has    been    suggested   by 

that  during  the  Jurassic  period  their  oc-  Pourtales,  the  great  pressure   to   which 

currence  on  the  coral  reefs  of  that  time  the  heavy  atmospheres  of  earlier  periods 

showed  these  ancient  crinoids   to  have  subjected  the  animals  of  those  days,  and 

lived  in  much  shallower  waters  than  their  thus     perpetuates     conditions    recalling 

recent  allies,  the  Pentacrinus  and  Rhizo-  those  of  the  shoal  waters  of  early  ages, 
criuus  of  the  West  Indies.     The  occur- 


THE    WEST    INDIAN    FAUNA.  19 

in  the  West  Indian  miocene  is  not  more  anomalous  than  is  the 
occurrence  in  the  deep  water  of  the  West  Indian  seas  of  living 
species  which  perhaps  characterized  the  Sicihan  tertiaries.  The 
beds,  forming  raised  terraces  such  as  those  of  the  Barbados  and 
of  other  islands  of  the  Caribbean,  though  they  seem  to  be  the 
direct  continuation  of  the  coral  beds  now  growing,  yet  also  give 
us  the  measure  of  the  physical  changes  which  must  have  taken 
place  in  the  West  Indian  regions  about  the  end  of  the  creta- 
ceous, at  the  time  of  the  separation  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  absence  of  single  simple  species  of  corals  in  the  Caribbean 
district  within  the  reef  area  distinguishes  this  fauna  at  once 
from  that  of  the  reef  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans, 
in  which  are  found  in  shoal  or  moderately  shoal  water  several 
species  of  simple  corals,  like  Flabellum,  many  Fungidae,  and 
others,  besides  genera  and  families  not  represented  in  the  West 
Indies.  Yet  the  bathymetrical  distribution  of  the  West  Indian 
species  gives  us  an  approximate  idea  of  the  depths  at  which 
some  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  of  the  cretaceous  and  tertiaries 
containing  corals  were  probably  deposited. 

Pourtales,  who  thoroughly  studied  the  deep-sea  corals  of 
Florida,  was  of  the  opinion  that  some  of  the  miocene,  pliocene, 
and  pleistocene  strata  of  Messina,  of  which  the  fossils  have  been 
so  carefully  described  by  Seguenza,  were  deposited  in  a  depth 
averaging  450  fathoms,  and  ranging  from  about  200  to  700 
fathoms.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Vienna  we  may  trace  from 
Reuss's  monographs  the  fluctuations  of  depth  which  have  taken 
place  between  the  deposition  of  the  different  strata.  The  mio- 
cene beds,  in  which  there  are  numerous  astraeans  associated 
with  Porites,  are  shoal-water  deposits ;  while  the  strata  contain- 
ing Turbinolidae,  Oculinidse,  and  Eupsammidse  were  formed  in 
deep  water. 

The  West  Indian  tertiary  corals  are  not  sufficiently  known  to 
permit  us  to  reconstruct  from  them  alone  the  past  history  of  the 
ancient  Caribbean  seas.  Duncan  observed  that,  on  some  islands, 
such  as  Antigua  and  Trinidad,  only  reef  species  flourished.  This 
shows  conclusively  that  in  other  places  there  must  be  deep-sea 
deposits  of  the  tertiary  period  which  have  not  yet  been  brought 


20  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

to  light.  It  is  possible  that  the  massive  types  of  the  West 
Indian  miocene,  such  as  the  Asterosmilise  and  others  which  have 
no  analogues  at  the  present  time,  may  have  been  living  in  the 
shoal  water  protected  by  reefs  in  the  same  way  as  the  Fungiae 
of  the  Pacific,  or  some  of  the  unattached  compound  corals,  as 
Manicina  or  Isophyllia  of  our  coral  reefs. 

According  to  Mr.  Dall,  a  large  proportion  of  the  miocene  and 
even  pliocene  fossils  of  this  country  and  of  Sicily  still  exist  in  a 
living  condition  near  our  shores.  They  are  found  principally  in 
the  continental  region.  There  are  not,  however,  a  sufficient 
number  of  antique  types  to  characterize  the  deep-sea  molluscan 
fauna  as  archaic,  and  none  of  them  are  as  remarkable  as  the 
Australian  Trigonia,  the  Caribbean  Pleurotomaria,  or  the  Indian 
Nautilus. 


XV. 

SKETCHES  OF  THE  CHARACTERISTIC  DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  FISHES.^ 

The  collections  of  the  earlier  deep-sea  expeditions  consisted 
almost  exclusively  of  invertebrate  animals,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  publication  of  the  "  Challenger  "  results  that  any  large  num- 
ber of  deep-sea  fishes  became  known.  The  first  extensive  con- 
tribution to  our  knowledge  of  the  vertebrate  inhabitants  of  the 
great  depths  of  the  sea  was  made  by  Dr.  Giinther  of  the  British 
Museum,  in  1878.  He  printed  in  the  "  Annals  and  Magazine 
of  Natural  History  "  a  series  of  papers  containing  descriptions 
of  some  species  of  fishes  which  had  been  obtained  by  the  "  Chal- 
lenger." 

The  deep-sea  fishes,  as  a  whole,  although  distinguished  by 
marked  peculiarities,  consist  of  types  not  wholly  unfamiliar  to  the 
ichthyologist.  Many  of  the  characteristic  abyssal  families  have 
representatives  in  the  inshore  faunae,  less  strongly  specialized 
perhaps  than  their  allies  in  the  abysses,  but  still  structurally 
the  same.  Others  had  in  former  years  become  known,  from 
dead  individuals  which  floated  to  the  surface  or  drifted  ashore. 
The  latter  have  usually  been  designated  as  "  pelagic  forms," 
and  until  the  existence  of  a  deep-sea  fauna  was  revealed,  the 
problem  of  their  origin  was  much  less  intelligible  than  it  is  now. 

Even  now,  the  distinctions  between  the  inhabitants  of  deep 
water,  those  of  the  middle  depths,  and  those  of  the  surface 
strata  of  mid-ocean,  are  not  strongly  defined.  Such  are  the  im- 
perfections in  the  methods  of  trawUng  and  dredging,  that  the 
naturalist,  when  he  has  sorted  out  the  fishes  from  his  nets  after 

^  I  am   indebted   to  Professor  Goode  East  Coast  of  the  United  States  by  Goode 

and  Dr.  Bean  for  notes  upon  the  Fishes,  and  Bean,  based  upon  the  collections  of 

The  figures  are   taken  from  a  Memoir  the  "  Blake  "  and  of  the  U.  S.  Fish  Com- 

preparing  on  the  Deep-Sea  Fishes  of  the  mission. 


22 


THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE. 


^*»^"' 


Fig.  195.  —  Stemoptyx   diaphana.     -^. 


a  haul  in  mid-ocean,  is  entirely  at  a  loss  to  know  where  his  cap- 
tures have  been  made.  If  he  has  taken  a  flounder  from  a  haul 
in  800  fathoms,  or  finds  a  macruroid,  a  brotuloid,  a  berycoid,  a 
synodontoid,  or  a  nemichthyoid  in  a  net  which  has  been  below 

the  two-thousand- 
fathom  line,  he  feels 
tolerably  sure  that  he 
has  brought  it  up 
from  the  bottom. 
But  who  shall  say 
where  those  which 
like  Argyropelecus, 
Stemoptyx  (Fig. 
195),  or  Cyclothone 
(Fig.  196),  having  al- 
lies among  the  pela- 
gic fishes  in  the  same 
net,  have  come  from  ?  They  may  have  come  from  the  bottom,  or 
they  may  have  become  entangled  in  the  meshes  of  the  trawl  when 
but  a  few  fathoms  below  the  surface,  in  its  ascent  or  descent. 
Many  of  the  deep-sea  fishes  undoubtedly  lead  a  most  active  life 
in  spite  of  their  cartilaginous  bones  and  feeble  muscular  system, 
being  kept  efficient  perhaps  by  the  enormous  pressure  under 

which  they  live.  The  abso- 
lute calm  of  the  abyssal  re- 
gions may  be  the  cause  of  the 
extraordinary  development  of 
some  of  the  tactile  or  other 

Pig.  196.  —  Cyclothone  lusca.    \-    (U.  S.  F.  C.)  „  .  . 

organs  oi  sense  occurring  m 
different  parts  of  the  skin,  usually  on  the  head  or  upon  the 
lateral  lines ;  some  of  these  may  be,  as  has  been  suggested  by 
Leydig,  accessory  eyes,  or  phosphorescent  organs.  The  acces- 
sory eyes  may  perform  the  part  of  bull's-eyes,  thus  constituting, 
according  to  Dr.  Giinther,  "  a  very  deadly  trap  for  prey,  one 
moment  shining  that  it  might  attract  the  curiosity  of  some  sim- 
ple fish ;  then  extinguished,  the  simple  fish  would  fall  an  easy 
prey."  Some  of  the  long  filamentous  organs  are  phosphores- 
cent, while  others  are  merely  tactile. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. FISHES.  23 

Many  surface  fishes  also  descend  to  considerable  depths.  In 
fact,  the  migration  of  our  coast  fishes  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant problems  which  the  fisherman  has  to  solve,  and  one  of 
which  we  as  yet  know  but  little.  There  seems  to  be  no  seri- 
ous obstacle  to  extensive  bathymetric  movements'  on  the  part  of 
fishes.  The  silver  hake,  which  is  abundant  all  summer  long  at 
the  surface  on  the  New  England  coast,  has  been  taken  from 
487  fathoms,  and  appears  to  live  in  September  and  October  at 
considerable  depths  off  Southern  New  England.  There  is  reason 
to  believe  that  the  mackerel,  menhaden,  and  the  bluefish  also  go 
down  below  the  hundred-fathom  line  in  winter. 

The  fishes  of  the  abyssal  realm  are  very  distinct  from  those 
of  the  surface  faunte.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  there  are  more 
genera  common  to  the  seas  of  Australia  and  North  America  than 
to  the  littoral  and  abyssal  faunae  off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States,  —  excluding  the  pelagic  types,*  many  of  which 
are  cosmopolitan.  Indeed,  of  the  sixty  or  more  genera  which 
have  been  dredged  below  1,000  fathoms  in  any  sea,  only  one 
has  been  found  in  less  than  200  fathoms  on  our  own  coast,  and 
four  within  the  two  hundred-fathom  line  in  any  sea,  even  in 
polar  regions.  Of  the  same  assemblage,  only  seven  occur  any- 
where in  less  than  300  fathoms,  and  down  to  500  fourteen  are 
added  to  the  list.  These  fourteen  genera  represent  ten  fami- 
lies. Out  of  the  thirty-four  family  groups  which  are  repre- 
sented below  1,000  fathoms,  or  in  mid-ocean  beyond  soundings, 
only  five  are  represented  in  any  in-shore  fauna,  even  in  circum- 
polar  regions. 

We  have  now  considered  the  composition  of  the  abyssal 
fauna,  as  found  at  the  greatest  depths.  A  glance  at  its  upper 
limits  may  also  prove  instructive ;  we  find  below  the  hundred- 
fathom  line,  and  within  the  limit  of  500  fathoms,  a  very  hete- 
rogeneous assemblage.  Well-known  surface  species  inhabit 
at  times  water  of  considerable  depths.  The  cod  goes  below 
100  fathoms  ;  the  halibut  and  the  Newfoundland  turbot  go  be- 
low 300,  and  the  haddock  apparently  to  500,  on  the  New  Eng- 
land coast.  Hake  are  also  deep-sea  lovers,  being  recorded  at  a 
depth  of  over  304  fathoms.  One  of  the  species  of  Phycis  {P. 
regius)  from  233  fathoms  was  discovered  to  be  electric,  giving 


24  TUKEE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

quite  a  strong  shock  to  Commander  Bartlett  and  me.  The 
goose-fish  and  the  hag  go  down  at  least  over  350,  the  "  Norway 
haddock "  to  more  than  150  fathoms.  The  swordfish,  when 
attacked  at  the  surface,  is  able  to  "  sound  "  with  ease  and  ra- 
pidity to  a  depth  of  500  or  1,000  feet,  arriving  at  the  bottom 
with  such  force  as  to  imbed  its  sword  at  full  length  in  the  mud, 
and  there  seems  to  be  nothing  to  prevent  powerful  swimmers 
from  visiting  the  bottom  at  any  time  when  the  conditions  of  tem- 
perature will  permit.  Scopelus,  one  of  the  most  common  pelagic 
fishes,  may  live  at  considerable  depths  :  it  comes  up  to  the  sur- 
face mainly  during  calm  nights. 

The  number  of  representatives  of  shallow  -  water  families 
dredged  below  100  fathoms  and  down  to  a  depth  of  500  fath- 
oms is  quite  large,  but  diminishes  rapidly  below  that  depth,  two 
or  three  extending  only  to  700  fathoms,  and  an  equal  number 
to  1,000  and  2,000  fathoms. 

To  the  bottom-living  species  which  may  have  made  their  way 
gradually  down  to  deep  water  upon  the  continental  slopes  be- 
long preeminently  the  flat  fishes.  Fourteen  species  have  been 
detected  on  our  Atlantic  coast,  living  beyond  the  hundred-fathom 


Pig.  197.  —  Monolene  atrimana.     About  \. 

line.  One  of  them  (Monolene)  (Fig.  197)  comes  from  300  fath- 
oms, and  three  genera  occur  well  down  toward  the  thousand- 
fathom  line.  The  pole  flounder  ranges  beyond  this  limit,  and 
breeds  in  deep  water.  It  has  the  cavernous  skeleton  of  the  deep- 
sea  fishes.  In  Bedford  Basin,  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  adjacent 
waters,  it  lives  at  depths  of  about  15  to  20  fathoms,  and  yet  indi- 
viduals captured  there  exhibit  the  peculiarities  of  abyssal  types. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES.  —  FISHES. 


25 


The  flat  fishes  are  represented  by  at  least  two  genera  fossil 
in  the  schists  of  Glaris,  believed  to  have  been  the  bottom  of  a 
deep  sea,  and  in  the  clays  of  Sheppey  are  found  fossil  the  three 
genera  Gadus,  Merlucius,  and  Phycis,  —  types  which  rarely  go 
below  1,000  fathoms.  Of  the  eleven  recognized  families  of 
anacanthian  fishes  (flat  fishes,  cods,  and  the  like),  all  save  four 
are  known  from  the  abyssal  fauna.  The  brotulid  forms  allied 
to  the  cods  represent  a  dominant  abyssal  group. 

Among   them    may  be    mentioned    Barathronus  (Fig.   198) 


Fig.  198.  —  Barathronus  bicolor.     About  4. 

(1769  fathoms),  a  small-eyed  fish  with  marked  colored  bands  upon 
its  flanks,  and  Barathrodemus  (Fig.  199)  (647-1395  fathoms),  a 


Fig.  1!)9.  —  Barathrodemus  raanatinus.    About  §. 

cusk-Hke  fish.     One  of  the  most  interesting  forms  of  the  Bro- 
tulidse  is  Aphyonus,  with  rudimentary  eyes,  one  species  of  which, 


Pig.  200.  —  Aphyonus  mollis.     About  ^. 

having  no  visible  eyes,  was  obtained  by  the  "  Challenger  '*  at 
a  depth  of  1,400  fathoms,  south  of  New  Guinea ;  another,  A. 
mollis  (Fig.  200),  by  the  "  Blake,"  in  955  fathoms.     This  fish 


26  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

is  covered  by  a  flaccid,  scaleless  skin,  is  toothless,  and  has  its 
head  covered  with  a  system  of  wide  muciferous  canals,  the  der- 
mal bones  being  almost  membranaceous.  It  is  either  a  very 
ancient  or  a  very  degenerate  type,  but  bears  a  remarkable 
superficial  resemblance  to  its  ally,  Lucifuga,  which  inhabits  the 
subterranean  waters  of  caves  in  Cuba,  and  has  lost  the  use  of 
its  eyes. 

The  typical  family  of  cods  (Gadidae)  is  also  numerously  repre- 
sented in  the  depths  of  the  sea  ;  those  forms  which  descend  to 
the  greatest  depths  being  usually  of  a  more  elongate  form 
than  the  brotulids,  and  with  a  small,  often  filamentous,  first  dor- 
sal fin. 

The  Ophidiidae  ( Ophidium  cervinum)  (Fig.  201)  are  elongated 
Gadoids. 


Fig.  201.  —  Ophidium  cervinum.     About  ^.     (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

The  Lycodidse  are  abundant  in  the  polar  waters  and  lesser 
abysses  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  and  occur  also  where 
the  Atlantic  abysses  merge  into  the  Antarctic. 

The  macruroids  (Fig.  202)  are  characteristic  abyssal  forms, 
and  both  specifically  and  individually  are  exceedingly  numerous 
at  all  depths  below  the  hundred-fathom  line.  Seventy-five  per 
cent  at  least  of  the  fishes  brought  up  in  the  trawl  from  the 
abyssal  regions  are  members  of  this  family.  Macrurus  is  rare 
below  1,000  fathoms,  only  one  species,  M.  Bairdii,  having  strag- 
gled below  this  limit.  It  is  more  abundant  inside  the  five  hun- 
dred-fathom fine,  and  Steindachneria,  a  macruroid  with  a  high 
differentiated  first  anal  fin,  has  been  obtained  by  the  "  Alba- 
tross "  in  68  fathoms.  The  species  and  individuals  of  Coryphse- 
noides  and  Bathygadus  (Fig.  203)  are  as  numerous  below  500 
fathoms  as  those  of  Macrurus  are  above  it.  The  cavernous  struc- 
ture and  membranous  texture  of  their  skeletons  are  very  marked, 
and  they  seem,  through  their  elongate  forms,  tapering  tails,  im- 
mense heads,  and  strongly  armed  bodies,  to  be  especially  adapted 


-f/irrH 


8 


to 


s- 


a. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. FISHES.  27 

to  life  in  the  ooze  and  slime  of  the  bottom.  Macrurus  Bairdii 
and  Phycis  Chesteri  (Fig.  204)  are  the  two  most  common  fishes 
of  the  continental  slope,  where  they  occur  in  immense  numbers, 
and  breed  at  depths  varying  from  140  to  500  fathoms. 

The  family  Bregmacerotidae,  hitherto  known  only  through  a 
single  species,  a  native  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  appears  adapted  to 
living  at  considerable  depths.  The  discovery  by  the  "  Blake  " 
of  a  species  (the  long-finned  Breymaceros  atlanticus)  (Fig.  205) 


Fig.  205.  —  Bregmaceros  atlanticus-     ^. 

of  this  old-world  genus  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  a  depth  of 
305-390  fathoms,  is  very  interesting  to  ichthyologists. 

Certain  groups  of  the  blennies,  gobies  and  the  like,  often  send 
stragglers  down  to  the  lesser  abyssal  depths.  They  are  forms 
with  more  or  less  elongate  bodies,  and  low,  feeble  vertical  fins, 
adapted  neither  to  free  swimming  nor  to  the  pursuit  of  prey  at 
the  surface.  They  are,  in  fact,  bottom  feeders,  somewhat  slug- 
gish in  habit,  and  usually  live  among  stones  and  hide  in  crevices ; 
while,  as  a  rule,  fishes  like  the  perch,  the  sea-bream,  and  the 
mackerel,  belonging  to  groups  with  compact,  short  bodies,  pow- 
erful fins,  and  boldly  predaceous  disposition,  do  not  descend  to 
great  depths,  and  do  not  wander  far  from  the  coast  waters.  The 
Berycoidea,  the  first  group  of  bony  fishes  to  appear  upon  the 
geological  horizon,  occurring  early  in  the  cretaceous,  are  repre- 
sented in  the  deepest  dredgings  of  the  "  Albatross  "  (2,949  fath- 
oms) by  a  species  of  Plectromus.  (Fig.  206.)  The  Norwegian 
deep-sea  expedition  found  a  species  of  Beryx,  and  Beryx  splen- 
dens,  a  magnificent  brilliant  scarlet  species,  known  hitherto  only 
from  Madeira,  was  one  of  the  most  important  captures  of  the 
"  Albatross,"  in  460  fathoms. 


28  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE.' 


Fig.  206.  — Plectromus  snborbitalis.     \.     (U.  S.  F.  C.) 


The  snappers  and  groupers  of  the  tropics  surely  range  below 
one  hundred  fathoms,  but  it  seems  hardly  appropriate  to  regard 
any  of  the  true  percoids,  or  any  of  their  very  near  allies,  as 
really  abyssal  in  habit. 

Some  of  the  scombroids  seem  to  inhabit  deep  water,  espe- 
cially the  Trichiuridae,  the  so-called  cutlass-fishes,  which  may 
be  considered  a  deep-sea  group.  They  are  long,  compressed,  of 
glistening  silver  color ;  they  date  back  to  the  chalk  of  Lewes 
and  Maestricht,  and  occur  in  the  eocene  schists  of  Glaris.  A 
number  of  pelagic  scombroids  have  been  taken  under  such 
circumstances  as  to  render  it  probable  that  they  descend  to 
considerable  depths.  The  lumpsuckers  (Liparidse)  are  well  rep- 
resented by  four  genera,  which  have  undergone  extreme  modifi- 
cations characteristic  of  abyssal  forms.  They  have  soft,  cavern- 
ous skeletons,  immensely  developed  mucous  canals,  and  are  soft 
and  flaccid  in  the  extreme.  The  family  of  lump-fishes  (Cyclop- 
teridse)  is  represented  below  the  hundred-fathom  line  off  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

The  "  ribbon-fishes  "  may  be  named  with  the  abyssal  groups, 
although  they  have  never  been  dredged  at  any  considerable 
depth,  but  are  known  solely  from  individuals  stranded  upon  the 
shores  or  found  at  the  top  of  the  water.  The  largest  of  the 
ribbon-fishes  is  capable  of  rapid  motion  at  the  surface,  and  is 
probably  the  animal  which  has  most  often  been  taken  for  the 
sea-serpent.  The  "  Bermuda  sea-serpent,"  Regalecus  Jonesii, 
was  seventeen  feet  long,  and  swam  with  great  velocity  through 
the  surf,  and  dashed  itself  upon  the  shore.     It  seems  altogether 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  —  FISHES. 


29 


reasonable  to  believe  that  these  fishes  live  at  comparatively  mod- 
erate depths,  like  the  members  of  the  family  Trichiuridae. 

Among  the  bottom-loving  groups,  the  sculpin  descends  to  732 
fathoms ;  its  representatives  go  back  to  the  tertiary  formations. 

The  scorpaenoids  descend  to  440  fathoms.  Scorpaena  occurs 
in  the  eocene  of  Oran. 

The  blennies  are  still  represented  at  a  depth  of  471  fathoms. 

The  gobies  have  a  representative  in  deep  water,  Callionymus 
(Fig.  207),  a  huge  sea-robin-like  fish.    The  discovery  of  a  mem- 


Fig'.  207.  —  Callionymus  Agassizii.    About  ^, 


ber  of  this  old-world  family  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  a  depth 
of  340  fathoms,  is  one  of  the  noteworthv  features  of  the 
"  Blake  "  exploration. 

We  should  also  mention  the  tile-fish  dredged  off  our  Middle 
Atlantic  coast  in  deep  water,  the  remarkable  Lopholatilus  cha- 
mceleonticeps. 

Chiasmodon  niger  (Fig.  208)  is  a  species  which  has  been 


Fig.  208.  —  Chiasmodon  niger.    About  f     (U.  &  F.  C.) 

often  described,  but  its  common  name,  "  the  great  swallower," 
is  so  characteristic  that  we  may  here  recall  it  to  memory.  It  is 
able  to  take  in  fishes  fully  half  as  large  as  itself.     Gtinther 


30  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE." 

places  it  in  1,500  fathoms.  Most  of  the  specimens  known  have 
been  collected  at  the  surface,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  reasonable 
probability  that  this  genus  inhabits  intermediate  depths,  since 
mid-depth  fishes  only  have  been  found  in  its  stomach. 

The  gurnards  have  also  representatives  in  deep  water,  if  the 
remarkable  new  genus  Hypsicometes  is  one  of  its  members. 
This  has  been  obtained  both  by  the  "  Blake  "  and  by  the  "  Al- 
batross "  at  various  depths  from  68  to  324  fathoms,  and  four 
species  of  the  family  touch  the  hundred  -  fathom  line  or  go 
below  it. 

The  Agonidee  are  represented  in  324  fathoms  by  one  species 
of  Peristedium  (Fig.  209),  remarkable  for  its  branching  barbels, 


Kg.  209.  —  Peristedium  long^patha.     About  ^. 

and  three  others  found  between  140  and  300  fathoms,  —  all  the 
result  of  recent  American  explorations. 

It  is  worthy  of  note,  that  the  characteristic  abyssal  families 
are  apparently  offshoots  of  free-swimming  species  of  active  hab- 
its, which  have,  in  the  course  of  time,  become  gradually  accli- 
mated in  the  depths  of  the  sea.  Their  approach  to  great  depths 
would  appear  to  have  been  in  vertical  lines,  rather  than  upon 
the  slopes  of  the  ocean  bottom. 

One  of  the  most  aberrant  types,  Notacanthus,  was  obtained  by 
the  "  Challenger  "  from  a  depth  of  1,875  fathoms.  JV.  pJiasga- 
norus  was  taken  from  the  stomach  of  a  shark  killed  on  the 
Grand  Bank  of  Newfoundland. 

Many  members  of  the  group  of  Pediculati  are  often  met  with 
swimming  on  the  surface.  They  are  species  whose  habits  seem 
to  have  become  modified  to  those  of  deep-sea  fishes,  while  they  ap- 
parently retain  the  characteristics  of  their  surface  allies,  the  most 
famihar  representatives  of  which  are  the  goose-fish  (Lophius) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. FISHES. 


31 


and  its  allies  (Malthe  and  Pterophryne).     Lophius  piseatorius, 
the  common  goose-fish  of  the  North  Atlantic,  descends  to  365 


Fig,  210.  —  Ac.^i  oi  i  iciophryne.     About  i. 

fathoms.     Pterophryne,  "  the  marbled  angler  "  of  the  Sargasso 
Sea,  is  specially  adapted  to  live  among  the  floating  algae,  to 


Fig.  211.  —  Antennarins 


which  it  clings  with  its  pediculated  fins,  and  in  which  it  inter- 
twines its  gelatinous  clusters  of  eggs.     (Fig.  210.)     Its  ally, 


32 


THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE. 


Antennarius  (Fig.  211),  has  become  adapted  to  life  on  the 
bottom,  and  is  found  nearly  down  to  the  hundred-fathom  line. 
Chaunax  pictus,  a  closely  related  genus,  was  taken  by  the 
"  Blake  "  in  288  fathoms.  The  Ceratiidae  are  the  only  pedicu- 
lates  which  are  exclusively  and  characteristically  abyssal.  Me- 
lanocetus,  a  deep-sea  Lophius  in  appearance,  ranges  from  360 
to  1,850  fathoms ;  the  "  Blake  "  took  it  in  992  fathoms. 

The  Alepocephalidse,  the  Halosauridae  (Fig.  213),  and  Chau- 
liontidse  (Fig.   214),  are  families  which  have  become  perma- 


¥ig.  215.  — Ipnops  Murrayi.     About  \. 

nent  residents  on  the  bottom.  To  the  former  belongs  Alepo- 
cephalus  Agassizii  (Fig.  212),  a  magnificent  fish  which  attains 
a  length  of  at  least  three  feet,  is  covered  with  silvery  scales,  and 
is  noted  for  its  large  eyes ;  while  allied  to  the  scopelids,  but 
inhabitants  of  deep  water,  belong  certain  genera,  as  Ipnops  (Fig. 


Fig.  217.  — Bathypterois  quadrifilis.     About  f. 

215),  Bathysaurus  (Fig.  216),  with  its  huge  dorsal  fin  and  fine 
teeth  set  in  many  rows,  Bathypterois  (Fig.  217),  and  Bentho- 
saurus  (Fig.  218),  a  small-eyed  fish,  with  large  ventral. 

The  pectoral  rays  of  Bathypterois  are  strangely  modified  ;  the 
anterior  ray  is  independent  of  the  others,  and  so  articulated  that 


[y 


S3 


I 


\ 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. FISHES. 


33 


it  may  be  extended  in  front  of  the  head  and  used  as  an  organ  of 
exploration,  so  that  we  may  imagine  this  fish  feeling  its  way  in 
the  dark,  and  exploring  the  ooze  to  discover  buried  in  it  the 
animal  upon  which  it  feeds. 

To  the  "  pelagic  Isospondyli "  belong  those  groups  which,  like 
the  Scopelidse,  are  found  from  time  to  time  at  the  surface,  liv- 
ing or  dead,  and  which,  there  is  reason  to  believe,  inhabit  the 
intermediate  depths  of  the  ocean,  having  the  power  of  ascend- 
ing and  descending  developed  to  an  extent  which  is  not  at 
present  understood. 

Among  the  deep-water  groups  named  above  occur  the  most 
abnormal  specializations,  such  as  powerful  jaws,  lancet-like  teeth, 
prolonged  tactile  appendages,  and  enlargement  of  the  tube-bear- 
ing scales.  They  have  not  the  cavernous  and  feeble  skeletons 
peculiar  to  the  deep-sea  gadoids,  and  many  other  famOies,  which 
may  have  found  their  way  gradually  into  deep  water ;  they  are, 
as  a  rule,  compactly  built,  muscular,  and  are  the  most  actively 
predaceous  of  the  abyssal  forms. 

The  pelagic  groups  do  not,  as  a  rule,  exhibit  special  modifica- 
tions of  form,  but  they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  provided  with 
peculiar  luminous  appendages,  which,  like  the  cavernous  skele- 
tons and  exaggerated  mucous  systems,  have  been  by  many  wri- 
ters attributed  to  deep-sea  fishes  in  general. 

In  his  "  Challenger  "  letters,  Willemoes-Suhm  speaks  of  the 
luminosity  of  Scopelus.  (Fig.  219.)  It  is  well  known  to  the 
fishermen  of  the 
Mediterranean 
that  at  the  death 
of  the  fish  the 
luminosity  ceases. 
We  frequently 
brought  in  scope- 
lids  in  our  tow- 
hets,  and  could 
observe  the  phos- 
phorescence of  the  luminous  spots,  so  arranged  that  it  seems 
as  if  the  anterior  ones  were  intended  to  explore  the  regions  in 
front  of  the  fish,  while  those  of  the  belly  illuminated  the  water 


Kg.  219. —Scopelus  Miilleri.     i.     (U.  S.  P.  C.) 


34  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE 

beneath  it.  The  "  Bombay  duck,"  so  common  at  certain  peri- 
ods in  the  Indian  Ocean,  belongs  to  this  group  of  phosphores- 
cent fishes.  It  is  probably,  with  Scopelus,  an  inhabitant  of 
deep  water,  coming  to  the  surface  only  at  certain  times. 

We  may  imagine  some  deep-sea  types,  when  in  search  of  their 
food,  illuminating  the  water  around  them  to  a  certain  extent  by 
their  feeble  phosphorescent  light.  Others  carry  beacons  or  spe- 
cialized plates  on  certain  parts  of  the  head ;  others  are  resplen- 
dent with  phosphorescent  spots  extending  along  the  sides  of  the 
body,  or  the  back,  or  ventral  surface  ;  while  in  others,  again, 
long  tactile  appendages  play  the  part  of  lights  sent  out  to  illu- 
minate dark  corners,  or  the  fins  themselves  may  be  intensely 
luminous.  Sometimes  the  whole  body  is  phosphorescent,  and 
diffuses  a  subdued  light,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  the  deep- 
sea  sharks.  It  is  hoped  that  future  investigations  will  solve  for 
us  the  question  whether  all  these  phosphorescent  fishes  are  not 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  the  habit  of  swimming  far  from 
the  bottom. 

Ipnops  is  evidently  a  dweller  on  the  bottom.  The  eyes  of  this 
fish  have  been  carefully  examined  by  Professor  Moseley.  They 
were  at  first  considered  phosphorescent  organs,  but  they  show  a 
flattened  cornea  extending  along  the  median  line  of  the  snout, 
with  a  large  retina  composed  of  peculiar  rods,  which  form  a 
complicated  apparatus,  destined  undoubtedly  to  produce  an 
image  and  to  receive  especial  luminous  rays.^ 

Malacosteus  is  the  sole  representative  of  a  peculiar  family,  the 
affinities  of  which  have  never  been  defined.     Malacosteus  niger 

^  The  existence  of  well-developed  eyes  cialized  phosphorescent  plates.     In  fishes 

among  fishes  destined  to  live  in  the  dark  that   have    been   blinded  and  retain   for 

abysses  of  the  ocean  seems  at  first  con-  their  guidance  only  the  general  sensibility 

tradictory  ;  but  we  must  remember  that  of  the  integuments  and  of  the  lateral  line, 

these  denizens  of  the  deep  are  immigrants  these  parts  soon  acquire  a  very  great  de- 

from  the  shore  and  from  the  surface.     In  licacy.     The  same  is  the  case  with  tactile 

some  cases  the  eyes  have  not  been  spe-  organs,  and  experiments   show  that  bar- 

cially   modified,   but  in  others  there  have  bels  may  become  organs  of  touch  adapted 

been  modifications  of  a  luminous  mucous  to  aquatic  life,  sensitive  to  the   faintest 

membrane,  leading  on  the  one  hand  to  movements  or  the  slightest  displacement, 

phosphorescent  organs  more  or  less  spe-  with  power  to  give  the  blinded  fishes  full 

cialized,  or  on  the  other  to  such  remark-  cognizance  of  the  state  of  the  medium  in 

able   structures   as   the   eyes  of  Ipnops,  which  they  live, 
intermediate  between  true  eyes  and  spe- 


I 


C3 


s 


s 


H 


i.} 


M 


o 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. FISHES.  35 

(Fig.  220)  has  been  taken  at  the  surface  (dead),  and  also  in  the 
trawl  at  various  depths  from  335  to  1,000  fathoms,  by  the 
"  Blake,"  "  Albatross,"   and  "  Talisman."     It  has  a  luminous 


Figf.  22().  —  Malacosteus  niger. 


body  under  the  eyes,  and  is  possibly  a  form  belonging  to  the 
intermediate  depths  of  the  ocean. 

Characteristically  abyssal  is  a  familiar  fish  of  our  own  coast, 
Synaphohranchus  pinnatus  (Fig.  221),  ranging  from  239  to 
1,200  fathoms.  Next  come  the  Nemichthjridae,  popularly  called 
the  "  snipe  eels,"  exceedingly  elongate,  feebly  finned  forms, 
with  the  jaws  prolonged  and  bill-like.  Nemichthys  scolopaceus 
(Fig.  222)  occurs  along  our  coast  in  306  to  1,047  fathoms. 
Another  typical  genus  living  in  considerable  depths  is  Netta- 
stoma,  represented  by  Nettastoma  procerum  (Fig.  223),  a  new 
species  taken  by  the  "  Blake  "  in  178  to  955  fathoms. 

Some  of  the  deep-sea  fishes  must  find  it  most  difiicult  to  sup- 
ply themselves  with  food.  Such  types  as  the  astonishing  Eury- 
pharynx,  discovered  by  the  "  Talisman,"  and  its  American  ally, 
Gastrostomus  Bairdii  (Fig.  224),  seem  to  meet  the  problem  of 
foraging  by  a  policy  of  masterly  inactivity.  Water  and  the  food 
it  contains  pour  into  the  mouth  and  the  enormous  cavity  be- 
hind it,  which  is  formed  both  above  and  below  by  the  lateral 
folds  of  the  head  and  of  the  anterior  part  of  the  body,  consti- 
tuting a  huge  pouch,  capable  of  great  expansion.  The  head 
thus  becomes  an  immense  funnel,  the  body  of  the  fish  being  its 
shank.  Perhaps  the  process  of  digestion  is  carried  on  in  part 
in  this  pouch. 

This  fish  undoubtedly  lives  in  the  soft  ooze  of  the  bottom,  its 
head  alone  protruding,  ready  to  ingulf  any  approaching  prey. 
Its  fins  are  atrophied,  and  the  power  of  locomotion  of  this 
strange  animal  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  structure 
of  the  lateral  line  as  described  by  Ryder  is  unique.     There 


36  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

are  groups  of  four  and  five  stalked  organs,  more  or  less  cup- 
shaped,  the  surrounding  skin  deeply  pigmented.  The  function 
of  these  side  organs  is  probably  tactile,  or  they  may  serve  some 
special  purpose  at  the  great  depth  at  which  these  fish  live. 
Analogous  organs  have  been  described  in  the  head  of  the  blind 
cave  fish.  It  may  be  that  the  side  organs  are  phosphorescent, 
like  those  of  the  scopelids.  These  side  organs  also  recall  the 
sense  organs  of  embryo  fish.  The  respiratory  apparatus  is 
unique  among  bony  fishes.  There  are  air-breathing  slits,  and 
the  water  which  enters  the  buccal  cavity  escapes  by  a  small  open- 
ing in  front  of  the  rudimentary  pectorals.  The  "  Blake  "  took 
specimens  of  this  fish  in  898  fathoms.  It  also  occurs  between 
389  and  1,467  fathoms. 

Of  the  selachians,  few  representatives  have  as  yet  been 
brought  to  light  by  deep-sea  explorers,  nor  is  it  to  be  expected 
that  such  large  forms  should  be  captured  by  the  methods 
hitherto  employed,  although,  as  has  been  stated,  a  regular  fish- 
ery for  deep-sea  sharks  (Centrophorus)  has  existed  from  time 
immemorial  off  the  coast  of  Portugal.  A  species  of  skate  was 
taken  by  the  "  Blake  "  in  233-333  fathoms.  Scyllium  and  Spi- 
nax  also  occur  below  200  fathoms  (Centi^oscyllium  Fahricii 
down  to  671).  Only  three  species  of  selachians  at  all  special- 
ized for  deep-sea  life  have  as  yet  been  found,  unless  perhaps  we 
except  Chlamydoselachus,  the  frilled  shark,  a  representative  of 
the  devonian  selachians,  which  is  found  off  Japan,  where  it  pro- 
bably is  an  inhabitant  of  deep  water.  This  is  one  of  those  in- 
teresting persistent  types,  like  the  Australian  Ceratodus  and  the 
American  ganoids :  the  gar-pike  and  mud-fish.  The  Japanese 
shark  has  the  teeth  of  an  ancient  devonian  type,  and  the  em- 
bryonic characters  of  the  lowest  orders  of  recent  sharks. 

The  lamper  eel  {Petromyzon  marinus)  and  hag  {Myxine 
glutinosa)  have  both  been  dredged  below  500  fathoms. 


XVI. 

CHARACTERISTIC  DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  CRUSTACEA.i 

In  a  rapid  survey  of  the  '*  Blake  "  collections  for  the  sake  of 
noting  some  of  the  more  interesting  discoveries,  the  large  num- 
ber of  very  small  and  exceedingly  long-legged  spider-crabs 
(Maioidea)  first  attract  attention.  Species  of  this  general  char- 
acter, such  as  Anomalopus  frontalis  (Fig.  225)  and  Anisonotus 


IHg.  225.  —  Anomalopus  frontalis.     ^'^^.     (Alph.  Milne-Edwards.) 

curvirostris  (Fig.  226),  are  found  to  be  numerous,  and  many 
of  them  very  abundant,  at  depths  between  30  and  300  fathoms, 
in  the  West  Indian  region,  and  a  few  species  extend  northward 
to  the  south  coast  of  New  England.  Pisolamhrus  nitidus 
(Fig.  227)  represents  another  group  of  Maioidea  inhabiting 
similar  depths. 

Among  the  Cancroidea  (crabs  and  their  allies),  which  are  so 

1  Prof.  Sidney  I.  Smith  has  kindly  assisted  me  in  preparing  the  account  of  the 
crustaceans. 


38 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


Pig.  227.  —  Pisolambrus  niti- 
dus.     ?.    (Milne-Edwards.) 


Fig.  228.  —  Micropanope 
pugilator.     ^. 
( Milne-Edwards.) 


characteristic  of  our  littoral  fauna,  and  are  also  found  pelagic 
in  the  gulf-weed,  there  are  comparatively  few  deep-water  species 
and  not  so  many  novelties ;  but  there  are  new  species  of  a  group 
of  very  small  crabs,  like  Pilumnus,  Neopanope,  and  Micropanope 

(Fig.  228),  charac- 
teristic of  the  West 
Indian  fauna  at 
moderate  depths. 
Olf  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  the  United 
States,  however, 
Geryon  quinque- 
denSy  previously  known  only  from  small  specimens  taken  off 
the  northern  coast  of  New  England,  was  found  growing  to 
enormous  size  at  depths  of  from  200  to  800  fathoms,  from 
the  south  coast  of  New  England  to  points  far  south  of  Cape 
Hatteras.  Specimens  taken  by  the  "  Blake  "  show  this  species 
to  be  one  of  the  very  largest  of  the  Brachyura,  the  carapace 
in  some  specimens  being  five  inches  long  by  six  broad.  Most 
interesting  among  the  Leucosoidea  is  Acanthocarpus  hispino- 

sus.  (Fig.  229.)  Here- 
tofore the  only  species  of 
the  genus  known  was  A. 
Alexandri,  which  is  armed 
with  an  enormous  spine 
upon  the  outside  edge  of 
the  claw,  instead  of  on 
the  side  of  the  carapace. 
\.  The    claws   are   provided 

with  a  stridulating  appa- 
ratus, which  is  rubbed  against  the  edge  of  the  carapace. 

Quite  striking  is  the  large  number  of  new  forms  of  Dorip- 
pidoidea,  a  group  previously  unknown  from  the  Western  Atlan- 
tic and  new  to  America.  Cydodorippe  nitida  (Fig.  230),  a 
small  species  with  smoothly  rounded  (Fig.  231)  and  highly 
polished  carapace,  will  serve  as  an  example.  This  and  two 
other  species  of  the  same  genus  were  taken  in  90  to  300  fath- 
oms.    Belonging   to    the   same  group  is    the    remarkable    and 


Fig.  22t>.  —  Acanthocarpus  bispinosiis. 
(Milne-Edwards. ) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SKA    TYPES. CRUSTACEA.  39 

little-knowu  genus  Cymopolia,  of  which  no  less  than  eight  spe- 
cies are  recorded  from  depths  varying  from  50  to  300  fathoms. 

Cymonomus    quadratus    and    Cyniopolus 

asjjer  represent  two  new  species  with  the 

carapace  projecting  in  a 

sharp    rostrum  in    front. 

The  latter  species,  taken 

in    75    to    150    fathoms, 

has    normally    developed   Fig.23i.— Cyciodonp- 

eyes,  while  in  the  former,  p^"^*^^^"  ^-  ^^"^'^'^ 
nitida.   ^.    (S.  TsmS^*'    taken  in  200  to  500  fathoms,  the  eye-stalks 

are  immobile  spiny  rods  tapering  to  obtuse 
tips  without  visual  elements ;  so  that  we  may  trace  here,  as  it 
were,  the  mode  of  disappearance  of  the  eyes  in  different  groups 
of  crustaceans.^  The  most  remarkable  species  referred  to  this 
group  is  Corycodus  hullatus,  of  which  an  imperfect  specimen 
was  taken  between  175  and  250  fathoms.  It  has  a  somewhat 
pentagonal  thick  and  very  swollen  carapace,  covered  with  flat- 
tened tubercles  resembling  small  rods. 

Among  the  great  number  of  new  forms  of  Anomura  (crusta- 
ceans intermediate  between  crabs  and  lobsters),  none  is  more 
striking  than  the  great  spiny  Lithodes  Agassizii.  (Fig.  232.) 
It  is  of  a  light  pink  color.  Specimens  have  been  taken  with 
the  carapace  nearly  seven  inches  long  and  more  than  six  inches 
broad,  and  with  the  outstretched  legs  over  three  feet  in  extent. 
The  whole  integument  of  this  magnificent  species  is  very  smpoth, 
but  the  spines  upon  the  carapace  and  legs  are  of  needle-like 
sharpness,  so  that  the  greatest  care  is  needful  to  handle  even 
dead  specimens  without  wounding  the  hands.  Considering  the 
pugnacious  habits  of  crabs,  it  must  be  a  formidable  enemy  among 
the  members  of  its  class.  The  spines  are  greatly  elongated  and 
very  slender  in  young  specimens,  giving  them  an  appearance 
very  unlike  that  of  the  adult.  This  species  was  taken  in  450  to 
800  fathoms ;  it  extends  from  the  southern  coast  of  New  Eng- 
land to  that  of  South  Carolina.^ 

1  In  the  Pycnogonidse  the  shallow-water  ^  Arctic  species  and  genera  were  found 
species  have  four  eyes  ;  the  deep-water  by  the  "  Blake  "  far  south  of  their  sup- 
species  none,  or  only  rudimentary  ones.        posed   range  ;    the   genus  Lithodes  was 


40 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


Acanthodromia,  which  recalls  from  the  shape  of  its  carapace 
fossil  Crustacea  characteristic  of  the  secondary  formation,  and 
Dicranodromia,  are  peculiar  new  genera  of  Dromidse  inhabiting 
depths  of  100  to  200  fathoms  ;  while  Homolopsis,  with  eyes 
nearly  atrophied,  is,  like  Cymonomus  just  mentioned,  a  Medi- 
terranean genus  which  has  been  found  by  the  "  Blake  "  in  the 
depths  of  the  Caribbean.  Homalodromia,  a  genus  of  the  fam- 
ily of  Homolidse,  is  in  some  respects  intermediate  between  it 
and  the  Dromidse,  two  families  thus  far  most  distinct,  and  occurs 
in  greater  depths,  from  300  to  600  fathoms. 

Among  the  hermit-crabs  (Paguroidea)  the  species  thus  far 
known  were  very  similar,  the  head  and  claws  alone  being  hard 
and  calcareous,  while  the  soft  terminal  parts  of  the  abdomen 
are  in  the  littoral  species  tucked  away  for  protection  into  all 

sorts  of  bodies,  such  as  shells  and 
the  like.  It  must  be  most  difficult 
often  for  the  deep-water  species  to 
find  appropriate  hiding-places,  and 
it  is  not  astonishing  that  the 
dredgings  of  the  ."  Blake "  have 
brought  to  light  a  number  of  re- 
markable new  forms,  whose  char- 
acteristics unite  them  with  the 
Macrura  ;  as,  for  instance,  Pylo- 
cheles  Agassizil,  which  has  a  per- 
fectly symmetrical  tail.  It  lives  in 
cavities  excavated  in  fragments  of 
stone  formed  of  agglutinated  sand. 
It  entirely  fills  the  cavity,  closing 
the  opening  with  the  claws,  which 
form  a  perfect  operculum.  Xylo- 
pagurus  rectus  (Fig.  233),  a  slen- 
der hermit-crab,  inhabits  tubes  ex- 
cavated in  bits  of  wood  (Fig.  234) 
or  the  hollow  stems  of  plants  open 


Fig.  233.  Fig.  234. 

Xylopagnrus    rectus.    ^. 
(Milne-Edwards.) 


previously  known  only  from  the  North-    the  West  Indian  region  were  discovered 
ern  and  Southern  oceans.     On  the  other     off  the  New  England  coast, 
hand,  species  previously  known  only  from 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


CRUSTACEA. 


41 


at  both  ends.  To  adapt  it  to  its  peculiar  dwelling,  the  posterior 
rings  of  the  tail  are  formed  into  a  large  and  bilateraUy  sym- 
metrical operculum  of  calcified  plates,  which  closes  the  poste- 
rior opening  as  effectively  as  the  stout  claw  does  the  anterior. 
The  animal  is  straight,  and  has  not  the  curved  abdomen  of  the 
hermit-crabs ;  it  enters  its  abode,  not  backwards,  as  do  the  her- 
mit-crabs, but  forwards,  head  first.  MixtojKigurus  paradoxus 
has  a  slightly  asymmetrical  taU,  in  which  the  rings  are  more 
or  less  distinct,  but  not  completely  calcified,  so  that  it  is  inter- 
mediate in  this  respect  between  Pylocheles  and  the  typical  her- 
mit-crabs. All  three  of  these  remarkable  forms  were  taken  in 
100  to  200  fathoms  in  the  West  Indian  region. 

The  species  of  Catapagurus  inhabit  depths  of  50  to  300 
fathoms  from  the  southern  coast  of  New  England  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  live  in 
a  great  variety  of 
houses  which  only 
imperfectly  cover  the 
animal,  of  which 
the  front  portion  of 
the  carapace  is  in- 
durated. They  are 
often  associated  with 
a  colony  of  polyps, 
Epizoanthus  (E  i  g . 
235),  or  the  house 
is  built  up  by  the 
base  of  a  simple 
polyp,  Adamsia,  which  has  expanded  laterally  and  united  below 
so  as  to  enclose  the  crab  in  a  broad  cavity.  (Fig.  236.)  The 
houses  are  generally  built  upon  fragments  of  pteropod  shells  or 
worm-tubes  as  a  nucleus.     This  is  frequently  resorbed. 

The  Epizoanthus  houses  are  very  often  disproportionately 
large  for  the  crabs  inhabiting  them,  having  grown  out  on 
either  side  until  they  are  several  times  broader  than  long. 
In  spite  of  these  enormous  houses,  both  species  of  the  genus 
probably  swim  about  by  means  of  the  ciliated  fringes  of  the 
ambulatory  legs.     A  similar  cooperative  association  between  a 


Fig.  235. 


Catapagurus  Sharreri.    2. 


(S.  I.  Smith.) 


42 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE.' 


Fig.  236.  —  Catapagurus  Sharreri.    |.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 


sea-anemone  and  a  crab  from  shallow  water  was  already  known, 
the  polyp  deriving  most  of  its  food  from  the  remnants  left  by 

the  crab,  and  the  latter 
in  its  turn  being  hidden 
by  the  Actinia  while 
creeping  towards  its 
prey. 

Ostraconotiis  sj^atu- 
lipes,  dredged  from  a 
little  over  100  fathoms, 
is  apparently  the  most 
aberrant  of  all  the  her- 
mit-crabs. It  appears 
to  live  without  a  house ; 
the  carapace  is  flexible, 
and  resembles  that  of  the  Galatheoidea ;  the  tail  is  so  rudi- 
mentary that  the  bunches  of  eggs  are  supported  by  the  feet. 

The  large  number  of  Galatheoidea  discovered  is  another 
prominent  feature  of  the  "  Blake  "  collection.  They  were  pre- 
viously represented  in  our  fauna  by  one  imperfectly  known  spe- 
cies. They  are  very  characteristic  of  deep  water  in  depths  of 
from  300  to  more  than  2,000  fathoms.  This  group  of  species 
is  well  illustrated  by  Munidopsis  rostrata.  (Fig.  237.)  Some 
of  the  Galatheoidea  have  enormously  long  legs,  with  which  to 
hunt  for  their  prey  in  deep  mud  or  in  hidden  corners,  Munida. 
(Fig.  238.)  Some  of  the  small  and  weak  forms  of  the  group, 
Diptychus,  are  exceedingly  abundant  in  100  to  700  fathoms 
among  the  branches  of  gorgonians,  and  others  in  the  interior  of 
some  of  the  delicate  siliceous  sponges ;  they  appear  greatly  dis- 
turbed, running  in  all  directions,  when  brought  to  the  surface. 

None  of  the  deep-water  Macrura  have  attracted  more  notice 
than  the  Eryonidae,  or  "  Willemoesia  group  of  Crustacea,"  first 
brought  into  prominent  notice  by  the  "  Challenger  "  expedition. 
No  less  than  five  new  species  of  this  group  were  discovered  at 
depths  ranging  from  100  to  1,900  fathoms ;  they  are  admi- 
rably illustrated  by  Pentacheles  sculptus.  (Fig.  239.)  The 
eyes  are  sessile  and  peculiarly  modified  in  all  the  species.  In 
I^entacheles  sculptus  the  eyes,  or  ophthalmic  lobes  rather,  com- 


Fig.  237.  —  Miinidopsis  rostrata.     \.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 


Fig.  289. — Pentaeheles  sculptns.     \.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


CRUSTACEA. 


43 


pletely  fill  deep  orbital  sinuses  in  the  front  of  the  carapace  in 
which  they  are  imbedded.  The  Willemoesiae  have  a  very  wide 
geographical  distribution,  and  they  are  peculiarly  adapted  for 
burrowing  in  soft  ooze,  in  which  they  seem  to  live.  Some  of 
the  species  are  wonderfully  transparent.     They  are  the  repre- 


Fig.  238,  —  Munida.     \.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 


sentatives  in  our  seas  of  the  fossil  Eryonidae,  which  flourished 
in  the  Jurassic  lithographic  beds  of  Solenhofen,  in  Bavaria.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  eyes  of  the  fossil  species  were 
extraordinarily  developed. 

JVephropsis  Agassizii  (Fig.  240),  the  only  species  of  Astacidea 
discovered,  belongs  to  a  genus  previously  known  only  from  a 
single  imperfect  specimen  dredged  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.     The 


44  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

genus  is  closely  allied  to  our  lobster  :  its  species  have  very  small 
and  colorless  eyes. 


Kg.  240.  —  Nephropsis  Agassizii.      f.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 

Fhoherus  ccecus  (Fig.  241),  taken  in  416  fathoms  oft*  Gre- 
nada, is  a  gigantic  crustacean,  combining,  according  to  Milne- 
Edwards,  characters  of  several  families  of  macrurans.  It  is  as 
large  as  a  lobster,  the  carapace  in  one  specimen  being  seven 
inches  in  length ;  and  the  whole  animal,  from  the  end  of  the 
tail  to  the  tip  of  the  outstretched  claws,  is  twenty-eight  inches, 
while  the  claw  alone  is  eight  inches.  The  eyes  are  rudimentary, 
and  do  not  project  beyond  the  carapace. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  any  conclusions  from  the  great  diversity 
presented  by  the  conditions  of  the  organs  of  sight  in  the  crus- 
taceans. Even  among  allied  species  we  find  that  some  are  blind, 
while  others  have  well-developed  organs  of  vision  ;  in  one  group 
the  eyestalks  are  flexible,  while  they  are  rigid  in  the  next.  One 
cannot  help  being  struck  with  the  fact  that  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  deep-sea  crustaceans  have  lost  their  eyes. 

Glyphocrangon  (Fig.  242)  represents  a  new  family,  of  which 
several  species  were  taken  both  in  the  West  Indian  region  and 
off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  in  250  to  1,200 
fathoms ;  these  very  characteristic  deep-water  forms  are  all  large 
and  shrimp-like,  with  massive,  highly  sculptured,  spiny,  and  tuber- 
culose  integument.     The  carapace,  owing  to  a  pecuHar  articula- 


OUARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CRUSTACEA.  4:5 

tion  formed  by  a  projection  of  its  margin  and  by  processes  of 
the  external  feet-jaws,  is  capable  of  a  slight  motion,  a  character 
unknown  among  decapods.  The  hinges  of  the  last  three  articu- 
lations of  the  rings  of  the  tail  are  modified,  so  that  they  can  be 


Fig.  242.  —  Glyphocrangon  aculeatus.     ^.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 

clamped,  and  the  animal  can  hold  the  terminal  rings  firmly  ex- 
tended as  a  means  of  self-defence. 

Sabinea  princeps  (Fig.  243),  taken  in  400  to  700  fathoms  off 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  and  a  closely  allied  spe- 


Pig.  243.  —  Sabinea  princeps.     \.     (S.I.Smith.) 

cies  from  ofP  Guadeloupe,  are  the  largest  known  species  of  the 
family  of  Crangonidse,  and  many  times  larger  than  the  two 


46 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


northern  species  of  the  genus.     >S'.  priiicejys  reaches  a  length  of 
five  inches  or  more. 

Numerous  new  species  of  Pandalus,  some  of  them  very  large 
and  with  greatly  elongated  legs,  and  of  the  allied  genus  Hetero- 
carpus  (Fig.  244),  in  which  the  carapace  is  beautifully  carinated, 


Fig.  244. — Heterocarpus  carinatiis.     \.     (S.I.Smith.) 


were  taken  in  200  to  1,000  fathoms ;  they  are  apparently  char- 
acteristic of  the  fauna  at  that  depth  in  the  West  Indian  region. 
The  species  of  the  new  genus  Stylodactylus,  dredged  from  400 
to  500  fathoms,  probably  represents  a  new  family  of  Caridea. 


Fig.  246.  —  Acanthephyra  Agassizii.     \.      (S.  I.  Smith. ) 

The  oral  appendages  and  branchiae  belong  to  a  peculiar  type  of 
structure,  and  the  claws  of  the  first  and  second  pairs  of  legs  are 
very  long  and  slender,  with  slender  multiarticulate  and  hairy 
digits.  Nematocarciniis  ensiferus  (Fig.  245),  of  a  bright  rose- 
color,  from  800  to   1,400  fathoms,  and  JV.  ctirsor,  from  500 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CRUSTACEA. 


47 


fathoms,  represent  a  new  and  very  peculiar  family,  of  which  the 
species  are  often  abundant  in  deep  water.  Their  exceedingly 
long  and  very  delicate  legs,  three  to  four  times  the  length  of  the 
body,  tipped  with  fascicles  of  long  seta?,  are  apparently  intended 
as  an  adaptation  for  resting  on  very  soft  oozy  bottoms. 

New  species  of  the  little  known  genus  Oplophorus,  and  the 
new  genera  Acanthephyra  (Fig.  246),  Notostomus,  and  Menin- 
godora  (Fig.  247),  make  up  a  group  of  species  of  which  almost 
nothing  was  known .  before  the  explorations  of  the  "  Blake,'* 
although  they  are  very 
frequently  taken  in  the 
trawl  at  great  depths. 
The  structure  of  the 
articular  appendages 
of  these  species  is  very 
much  like  that  of  the 
schizopods     and    the 

•      ',£  1  1  Kg.  247.  —  Meninffodora.    l.     (S.  I.  Smith.) 

majority  oi  larval  ma-  b  i     v 

crurans.  Some  of  the  species  of  Notostomus  grow  to  a  large  size, 
are  very  deep  crimson  when  first  taken  from  the  water,  and 
are  among  the  most  striking  of  all  the  abyssal  Caridea. 

The  only  Penseidae  which  have  been  as  yet  described  are  from 


Kg,  248.  —  Benthoecetes  Bardetti.      \.     {^.  I.  Smith. ) 

off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.    These,  though  few  in 
number,  are  very  interesting.     Benthoecetes  Bartletti  (Fig.  248) 


48 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 


will  serve  as  an  example.  In  this  species  the  filaments  of  each 
antenna  are  greatly  elongated,  —  fully  once  and  a  half  the 
length  of  the  body ;  the  legs  increase  in  length  towards  the 
posterior  extremity,  and  the  three  anterior  pairs  have  minute 
claws ;  the  dactyli  of  the  two  posterior  pairs,  nearly  twice  as 
long  as  the  preceding  pair,  are  exceedingly  weak  and  slen- 
der, and  are  evidently  tactile  rather  than  ambulatory  organs, 
—  modifications  which  seem  adapted  to  the  deep-sea  life  of 
these  animals.  We  are  constantly  struck  with  the  exquisite 
delicacy  and  great  diversity  of  the  organs  of  vision,  of  hear- 
ing, of  touch,  and  even  of  smell,  in  the  deep-water  crustaceans. 
The  antennae  and  claws  are  frequently  of  excessive  length,  as 
if  to  facilitate  exploration  of  the  ooze  and  the  sounding  of 
objects. 

We  find  in  deep  water  huge  schizopods,  Gnathophausia  (Fig. 
249),  of  a  beautiful  red  color.  The  majority  of  schizopods  pre- 
viously known  were  mainly  pelagic,  and  belong  to  a  group  of 
small  crustaceans  which  have  the  thoracic  feet  all  alike,  divided 
into  two  branches  and  sometimes  carrying  free  gills.  Some  of 
these  deep-water  schizopods  are  provided  with  special  organs 

of  phosphorescence,  such 
as  luminous  plates  behind 
the  eyes  or  over  the  legs. 
Among  the  various  groups 
of  crustaceans  some  have 
phosphorescent  eyes,  while 
in  others  the  phosphores- 
cence is  diffused,  or  limited 
to  special  parts  of  the  body 
at  the  time  of  breeding,  or 
when  irritated. 

Among  the  Atlantic  spe- 
cies of  isopods,  we  may  fig- 
ure the  bright  orange  Sysce- 
nus  {S.  infeliXf  Fig.  250),  which  is  found  at  a  depth  of  nearly 
400  fathoms,  and  Rocinela  {R.  oculata.  Fig.  251),  the  upper 
surface  of  the  head  of  which  is  nearly  covered  with  large  ocelli 
arranged  in  rows.    From  the  collection  made  in  the  West  Indian 


Fig.  2.50.  — Syscenus  in- 
felix.     About  ij^- 
(Harger.) 


Fig.  251.  —  Roci- 
nela oculata.     4. 
(Harger.) 


Fig.  252.  —  Batliyuoiuus  gigaaiteus.     ^.     (A.  Milne-Edwards.) 


•'^. 


CHAKACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. CRUSTACEA. 


49 


region  only  a  single  species^  Bathynomusgiganteus  (Fig.  252), 
has  been  described,  but  this  is  by  far  the  largest  isopod  known, 
and  is  more  than  eleven  inches  long !  The  eyes  of  this  giant 
are  placed  on  the  lower  side  of  the  head,  and  consist,  according 
to  Milne-Edwards,  of  no  less  than  four  thousand  facets. 

The  amphipods  have  not  been  studied,  but  the  collection  from 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  contains  several  inter- 
esting species  ;  among  them  the 
great  angular  and  spiny  Epime- 
ria  loricata  (Fig.  253),  first  de- 
scribed from  specimens  taken  by 
the  Norwegian  expedition  in  the 
North  Atlantic,  and  a  single  speci- 
men of  the  very  peculiar  Neohela 
pasma. 

The  pycnogonids  from  the  West 
Indian  region  have  not  yet  been 
described,  but  those  from  the  At- 
lantic coast  of  the  United  States,  which  have  been  studied  by 
Prof.  E.  B.  Wilson,  are  especially  interesting.     The  most  striking 


Fig.  253. 


—  Epimeria  loricata. 
(S.  I.  Smith.) 


!• 


Pig.  254.  —  Colossendeis  colossea, 


(E.  B.  Wilson.) 


feature  of  the  species  is  their  great  size,  most  of  them  being  gi- 
gantic as  compared  with  shallow-water  species.     There  were  ten 


50  THREE    CKUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

species  in  the  "  Blake  "  collection,  and  half  of  them  were  new. 
The  largest  species  is  Colossendeis  colossea  (Fig.  254),  in  which 
the  slender  legs  are  nearly  two  feet  in  extent,  and  the  rostrum 
more  than  an  inch  long,  while  the  more  slender  Colossendeis 
macerrima  spreads  to  fourteen  inches,  and  has  a  rostrum  fully 
as  long  as  in  the  larger  species.  These  species  were  taken  in 
500  to  1,200  fathoms.  The  new  genus  Scseorhynchus  (Fig. 
255)  is  remarkable  for  its  spiny  body  and  swollen  and  reflexed 
rostrum ;  the  legs  of  >S'.  arrnatus  (Fig.  256),  the  single  species 
taken  below  1,200  fathoms,  are  nearly  five  inches  in  length. 
The  most  abundant  species  of  Nymphon  is  also  the  largest 
known  species  of  the  genus.  One  of  the  species  of  the  new 
genus  Pallenopsis,  dredged  from  260  to  330  fathoms,  is  more 
than  twice  as  large  as  any  of  the  species  from  allied  genera 
belonging  near  the  shore  or  in  comparatively  shallow  water. 

There  is  a  great  contrast  between  the  life  of  the  communities 
of  barnacles,  such  as  we  find  living  crowded  on  our  rocks  and 
floating  on  the  surface,  and  that  of  the  comparatively  solitary 
deep-sea  cirripeds  Scalpellum,  Verruca,  and  the  like.  This  is 
readily  understood  when  we  remember  that  the  living  or  dead 
organic  matter  floating  on  the  surface  in  the  wake  of  currents, 
and  along  the  shores,  supplies  the  former  with 
a  large  amount  of  food,  while  the  conditions 
of  life  at  the  bottom  are  far  from  favorable  for 
the  species  living  in  deep 
water. 

The  abyssal  cirripeds 
are  usually  attached  to 
nodules,  to  dead  or  living 
shells,  to  corals,  large  crus- 
taceans, spines  of  sea-ur- 
chins, and  the  like.     Seal- 

Fig.  257. -Scalpel-    pellum  Vegium  (Fig.  257),      Figr- 258^- verruca  incerta. 

lum  regium.   |.      a  peduuculatcd  form,  first 

named  by  Wyville  Thomson,  is  one  of  the 
largest  species  of  the  genus ;  it  has  been  dredged  by  the 
"  Challenger  "  from  nearly  3,000  fathoms,  and  is  quite  common 
in  the  West  Indies.      Verruca  incerta  (Fig.  258)  also  is  not  an 


Figs.  255,  256.  — Scseorhynchus  armatus.     \.     (E.  B.  Wilson.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CRUSTACEA.  51 

uncommon  West  Indian  type  from  the  globigerina  ooze :  it  be- 
longs to  the  group  having  no  peduncle. 

As  has  been  noticed  by  Hoek,  the  presence  of  Scalpellum  and 
Verruca  in  the  great  depths  of  the  ocean  coincides  in  a  strik- 
ing manner  with  the  palaeontological  history  of  these  genera. 
They  are  found  in  the  secondary  deposits,  yet  the  genus  Pol- 
licipes,  another  of  the  pedunculated  cirripeds,  dating  back  to  the 
oolite,  is  only  a  littoral  genus  in  our  seas. 

The  ostracods  are  minute  crustaceans,  the  dead  tests  of  which 
occur  in  nearly  all  the  bottom  deposits.  They  are  very  abundant 
fossils,  but  the  deep-sea  dredgings  have  not  as  yet  revealed 
any  type  of  im- 
portance. Many  of 
the  ostracods  (Fig. 
259)  are  pelagic; 
only  a  compara- 
tively small  num-  «.„.««.    ^ 

,         •',.  Fig.  259.— Cypns.    Greatly  magnified. 

bar    live    at    any 

considerable  depth ;  they  are  denizens  of  shallow  water  or  of 

moderate  depths. 


XVII. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA   TYPES.  —  WORMS.i 

The  collection  of  worms  made  by  the  "  Blake " 
expeditions  is  remarkably  rich,  and  not  merely  con- 
firms in  general  the  relations  which  similar  materials 
from  other  deep-sea  expeditions  had  already  shown, 
but  in  a  number  of  instances  furnishes  a  most  de- 
sirable supplement  to  the  results  of  the  earlier  expe- 
ditions. Unfamiliar  worms  are  here  found  in  well- 
preserved  specimens,  while  worm-cases  which  had  be- 
fore only  been  seen  empty  have  been  dredged  occupied 
by  their  builders.  Annelids  make  up  the  larger  part 
of  this  collection,  and  among  them  the  tubicolous 
annelids  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  One  of  the 
large  Eunicidse,  Hyalinoecia  tuhicola  (Fig.  260),  was 
specially  numerous  ;  its  tubes,  sometimes  fully  fifteen 
inches  in  length,  often  filled  the  bottom  of  the  trawl 
when  it  was  dragging  on  muddy  bottoms.  Some  of 
these  genera  are  most  striking  from  the  exquisite 
beauty  of  their  tubes,  which  are  composed  of  siliceous 
spicules,  and  dead  pteropod  shells,  and  also  from  their 
strange  association  with  corals,  gorgonians,  sponges, 
starfishes,  moUusks,  and  ascidians.  A  species  of 
Phorus  was  frequently  accompanied  by  a  large  an- 
nelid, comfortably  established  in  the  axis  of  the  shell, 
with  its  head  close  to  the  aperture.  Of  other  worms 
the  Nemertinse  are  represented  by  isolated  fragments  ; 
the  gephyreans  by  Sternaspis,  from  a  depth  of  158 
fathoms,  and  Aspidosiphon,  from  190  fathoms ;  while 
many    still    undetermined   species    of    Phascolosoma  Hyai 


Fig.  260. 
inoecia. 


^  The  following  account  of  the  worms  is  taken  from  the  Preliminary  Report  of 
Prof.  Ernst  Ehlers,  of  Giittingen,  who  has  supervised  the  drawing  of  the  figures. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. WORMS.  53 

extend  from  the  littoral  region  as  far  as  the  greatest  depth  here 
recorded,  one  species  having'  indeed  been  brought  up  in  a 
Dentalium  shell  from  a  depth  of  1,568  fathoms.  Although 
so  numerous,  no  new  forms  of  these  groups  were  collected 
either  by  the  "  Challenger "  or  "  Blake,"  with  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  some  of  the  tubicolous  types  in  deep  water.  Fur- 
thermore, these  groups  have  but  a  slight  significance  as  com- 
pared with  the  cheetopods  of  the  collection.  The  existence 
of  chaetopods  in  certain  localities  where  the  animals  themselves 
are  not  found  may  be  inferred  by  the  presence  of  their  tubes. 
Like  the  Uttoral  species  of  Maldanidse,  Clymense,  Serpulse,  and 
their  allies,  they  must  cover  extensive  tracts  of  ground  with 
their  tubes.  Yet  such  a  conclusion  is  not  always  admissible 
without  further  evidence  ;  it  can  be  accepted  only  when  the  indi- 
vidual worm  builds  his  tube  in  so  characteristic  a  way  that  there 
is  no  possibiHty  of  mistaking  it  for  that  of  other  annelids.  Sev- 
eral times  tubes  which  from  their  whole  appearance  have  been 
taken  for  worm-cases  were  discovered  to  be  inhabited  by  crusta- 
ceans (Amphipoda).  We  cannot  always  decide  if  the  occupant 
of  the  tube  was  also  its  builder.^  When  no  foreign  material  is 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  tube  except  mud  consolidated 
by  the  secretions  of  the  worm,  the  tubes  of  very  different  spe- 


Fig.  261.  — Diopatra  Fig.  262.  —  Diopatra         Fig.  263.  —  Hyalopomatus 

Eschrichtii.     ^.  glntinatrix.  Langerhansi.     ^. 

cies  of  worms  may  have  a  great  similarity  among  themselves ; 
when,  on  the  contrary,  various  foreign  materials  are  cemented 

^  Prof.  S.  I.  Smith  has  observed  the     of   their  excreta,  cemented  together  by 
peculiar  tubes  in  which  some  amphipods     threads  spun  by  the  little  crustacean, 
live  ;  they  are  mainly  built  up  of  pellets 


54 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


'^X^. 


in  the  tubes,  such  marked  pecuharities  may  occur  in  their  choice 
and  application  that  from  a  fragment  of  the  tube  the  builder 
can  be  inferred  with  certainty,  and  the  form  of 
the  tubes  (Figs.  261,  262, 
263)  may  even  be  so  char- 
acteristic that  there  is  no 
danger  of  mistaking  them 
for  other  tubes.  We  have 
examples  of  this  kind 
especially  in  the  Eunicidse, 
and  also  in  the  Maldanidae 
(Fig.  264),  Terebellidse,  Sa- 
bellidse,  and  Serpulidse.  In 
determining  the  distribution 
of  the  worms,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  uninhab- 
ited tubes,  usually  filled  by 
mud  or  other  material  from  the  bottom,  may  be  transported  by 
currents. 

Many  of  the  principal  types  of  the  littoral  annelids  have  not 


Fig.  264.  — Maldane 
cucuUigera.     ?. 


Fig.  265.  —  Cirra- 
tulus  melanacan- 
thus.      ?. 


Fig.  266. —  Amphinome  Pallasii.     f. 

been  dredged  beyond  the  hundred-fathom   line;   such   familiar 
groups  as  the    Syllidae,    Nereidae,  Cirratulidae  (Fig.  265),   and 

Amphinomidse  (Fig.  266),  have  no 
representatives  at  that  depth,  while 
the  Phyllodocidse,  Ariciidse,  Tere- 
bellidse,  and  Sabellidse  extend  to 
300  fathoms,  and  such  families  as 
the  Polynoidae  (Fig.  267),  Eunicidae, 
Opheliidae,  Aphroditidse,  and  Serpu- 
lidse live  beyond  the  five-hundred-fathom  line,  where  occur 
also  the  Ampharetidse,  many  of  which  live  in  tubes  lined  with 
a  chitinous  layer. 


Fig.  267.  — Sthenelais  simplex,    ij^- 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. WORMS. 


55 


Fig.  268. 
Rhamphobra- 
chium  Agas- 


Of  the  families  here  enumerated,  none  has  so  important  a 
bearing  on  the  character  of  the  faunal  region  as  that  of  the 
Eunicidae.  Their  representatives  are.  found  in  far  the  greatest 
number  of  localities  ;  they  range  from  the  littoral  district  to 
the  lowest  depths  at  which  chietopods  have  been  dredged  by 
the  "  Blake."  They  are  represented  by  the  largest  number  of 
genera  (Diopatra,  Onuphis,  Eunice,  Rhamphobrachium  (Fig. 
268),  Marphysa,  Lisidice, 
Lumbriconereis,  Arabella), 
and,  judging  from  the  large 
number  of  their  tubes  met 
with  in  many  localities,  they 
must  form  an  essential  part 
of  the  fauna.  It  is  easily 
seen,  however,  that  the  va- 
rious genera  of  this  family 
show  differences  in  their  ver- 
tical range,  the  bearing  of 
^"  which  will  perhaps  be  more 
clearly  understood  when  the  conditions 
of  temperature  of  their  habitat  are  taken 
into  account  in  connection  with  it.  Thus 
the  Eunice  conglomerans,  judging  from 
the  abundance  of  its  paper-like  irregular 
tubes  (Fig.  269),  is  a  characteristic  in- 
habitant of  the  littoral  belt,  as  far  as 

100  fathoms.  From  deeper  waters  come  the  tubes  of  the  Eunice 
tibiana  Pourt. ;  they  descend  to  243  fathoms,  about  to  the  re- 
gion where  the  Eunicidea  of  the  species  Diopatra  and  Onuphis 
appear,  some  of  which  frequently  build  very  peculiar  tubes; 
such  as  the  flat,  parchment-like  tubes  with  cemented  sponge 
spicules  of  Diopatra  Fourtalesii,  and  others  mentioned  by 
Pourtales  in  his  preliminary  account  of  the  results  of  his  first 
expedition. 

Among  these  chaetopods  species  now  appear  which  perhaps 
belong  exclusively  to  the  deep  sea;  they  are  separated  from 
Diopatra-like  forms,  with  large  leaf-like  expansions  of  the  ante- 
rior appendages,  and  with  long  hook-like  curved  bristles  at  the 


Fig.  269.  —  Eunice  conglom- 


56 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  ''  BLAKE. 


point.     The  Diopatra  (Fig.  270)  group  begins  near  the  hun- 
dred-fathom  line  ;  it  becomes   particularly  numerous  at   about 


Fig.  270.  —  Diopatra  giutiiiatrix.     *^. 

500  fathoms,  and  still  has  one  representative  at  a  depth  of  nearly 
1,000  fathoms. 

In  connection  with  the  important  part  here  taken  by  the 
Eunicidse  in  the  faunal  combination  of  a  marine  area,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  remark  that  among  the  annelids  of  the  lithographic 
shales  of  Bavaria  the  Eunicidae  are  those  which,  in  various 
forms,  are  most  richly  represented. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  deep-water  types  collected 


Fig-.  271.  —  Buskiella  abyssomm.     ^.     (Mcintosh.) 

by  the  "  Challenger  "  is  the  eminently  embryonic  Buskiella  (Fig. 
271),  which  bears  the  closest  resemblance  to  a  chsetopod  larva. 

Of  other  families  found  in  deep  water,  the  Polynoidse  and 
the  Aphroditidse  may  be  especially  mentioned.  But  as  they 
never  live  in  communities,  and  do  not,  as  a  rule,  build  large 
tubes,  they  are,  like  the  Opheliidse,  less  characteristic  of  the 
localities  to  which  they  belong  than  the  Maldanidse,  or  the 
Ampharetidse  ;  their  large  tubes,  built  of  mud,  and  sometimes 
associated  with  those  of  the  Eunicidae,  must,  judging  from 
the  masses  in  which  they  are  found,  be  a  marked  feature  of 
certain  localities. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. WORMS. 


57 


It  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  Serpulidse  (Fig.  272)  also 
occur  at  great  depths,  because  Ehlers,  in  working  up  the  an- 
nelids of  the  "Porcupine"  expedition,  had  no- 
ticed their  absence  in  deep  water,  and  left  it 
undecided  whether  they  were  excluded  by  the 
peculiar  nature  of  the  bottom  or  by  the  low  tem- 
perature of  the  deep  sea.  But  it 
is  not  uncommon  in  the  deep  water 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  bring  up 
rocky  fragments  which,  judging  from 
the  amount  of  mud  brought  up  by 
the  trawl  at  the  same  time,  must 
form  isolated  patches,  and  in  these 

Fig.  272. —  Pomalo-  ^  ' 

stegus  steUatus.    2.  undoubtedly    the    Serpulse     thrive. 
(Fig.  273.)    TerebellidjB  and  Serpu- 
lidse  have  been  obtained  by  the  "  Challenger "  at 
depths  of  nearly  3,000  fathoms.     Of  course,  where 
the  tubes  are  composed  of  secretions,  as  in  Hyali- 
noecia,  they  are  independent  of  their  surroundings 
and  of   the    character    of   the  bottom.      But   the       pi^.  273. 
majority    of    the   tube    builders    depend  upon  the   Hyaiopomatus 
material  at  their  disposal,  using,  to  strengthen  their  Langerhansi.  f 
tubes,   either  sand,  or  mud,  or  larger   solid  particles,  such  as 
foraminifers,  bivalves,  sponge  spicules,  and  the  like. 


XVIII. 

CHARACTERISTIC  DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  MOLLUSKS. 


OBPHALOPODS. 


The  shoal-water  species  of  cephalopods,  the  squids  and  cuttle- 
fishes, live  upon  the  bottom;  but,  being  powerful  swimmers, 
they  are  capable  of  extensive  migration,  so  that  with  them  as 
with  fishes  it  will  always  be  dif&cult  to  ascertain  the  depth  from 


X_-c^~-^ 


^ 


Fig.  274.  — Opisthoteuthis  Agassizii.     Abt.  ^. 


(Verrill.) 


which  they  have  been  obtained.     Many  of  them  are  pelagic,  and 
serve  as  food  for  a  large  number  of  marine  animals.^ 

Professor  Verrill,  who  has  examined  the  cephalopods  collected 
by  the  "  Blake,"  mentions  as  specially  noteworthy  the  follow- 
ing: Opisthoteuthis  Agassizii  (Fig.  274),  a  species  with  a 
broad  body  of  a  dark  chocolate  color,  long  fins,  and  arms  united 


^  Very  common  in  the  Gulf  Stream  is 
the  Sthenoteuthis  Bartrami,  large  speci- 
mens of  which  are  often  caught  on  the 


surface.  It  is  known  as  the  "  flying 
squid,"  often  darting  out  of  the  water  in 
the  velocity  of  its  movements. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  CEPHALOPODS. 


59 


Fig.  275.  —  Nectoteuthis  l^urtalesii.     ^-     (Verrill.) 


Fig.  276. — Mastigoteuthis  Agassizii.     ^.     (Verrill.) 

nearly  to  their  tips  by  a  thick  soft  web ;  among  the  cuttle-fishes, 
a  small  reddish-brown  species,  NectotmtUs  Pourtalesii  (Fig. 
275),  characterized  by  its  short  thick  body  and  the  great  size 


60 


TUREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


of  its  ventral  shield ;  and  the  remarkable  genus  Mastigoteuthis 
(Fig.  276),  the  type  of  a  new  family,  with  very  unequal  arms, 
and  a  large  caudal  fin,  of  an  orange-brown  color,  occupying 
about  half  the  length  of  the  body. 


Fig.  277.  —  Eledone  verrucosa. 


(VerriU.) 


A  stout  species  of  octopoid,  Eledone  verrucosa  (Fig.  277), 
of  a  dark  purplish  brown,  is  covered  above  with  rough  wart-like 
tubercles,  forming  a  prominent  circle  around  the  eyes.  One  of 
the  species  of  the  genus  gives  out  a  strong  smell  of   musk. 


Fig.  278.  —  AIloposus  inolli.s.    |.    (Verrill.) 


Another  characteristic  species  is  AIloposus  mollis  (Fig.  278), 
having  a  thick,  soft,  smooth  body,  and  arms  united  by  a  web 
nearly  to  their  extremity. 

Along  the   Atlantic  coast   a  number   of   cephalopods  were 
dredged,  many  of  them  from  considerable  depths ;  among  them 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CEPHALOPODS. 


61 


we  may  mention  Benthoteuthis.  (Fig.  279.)  They  are  mainly 
northern  species,  previously  collected  in  shallower  waters  by 
the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 


Kg.  270.  —  Benthoteuthis.    |.     (Verrill.) 


But  by  far  the  most  interesting  of  the  cephalopods  is  a  Spir- 
illa (Fig.  280)  in  excellent  condition,  dredged  off  Grenada  in  the 


Fig.  280.— Spirula.     Jf*.     (Huxley.) 

Caribbean  by  the  "  Blake  "  from  a  depth  of  950  fathoms.  From 
the  condition  of  the  chromatophores  of  the  body,  it  evidently 
lives  with  its  posterior  extremity  buried  to  a  certain  extent  in  the 
mud.  The  "  Challenger  "  collected  a  specimen  from  360  fath- 
oms, off  the  Banda  Islands.     Cephalopods  have  been  collected 


62  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

by  the  Fish  Commission  off  Martha's  Vineyard  from  a   depth 
of  over  1,000  fathoms.  , 

The  giant  squids  (Fig.  281)  of  the  North  Atlantic  (Architeu- 
this),  occasionally  thrown  up  on  the  shores  of  Newfoundland, 
attain  an  immense  size,  the  arms  measuring  fully  forty  feet  in 
length.  They  probably  live  in  the  regions  where  food  is  most 
abundant,  upon  the  slopes,  near  the  boundary  of  the  continen- 
tal plateau.  It  will  be  some  time  before  we  are  able,  with  our 
present  appliances,  to  capture  such  monsters  from  the  depths  at 
which  they  live.  The  Belemnites,  so  characteristic  of  some  of 
the  tertiary  deposits,  have  not  as  yet  been  dredged. 


GASTEROPODS  AND  LAMELLIBRANCHS.^ 

The  MoUusca  obtained  by  the  "  Blake  "  are  notable  in  several 
respects.  We  may  refer  to  the  absence  or  rarity  of  very  minute 
forms,  which  are  only  accidentally  preserved  in  the  contents  of  a 
trawl  net,  even  from  comparatively  shallow  water.  It  is  hardly 
to  be  expected  that,  in  the  long  washing  which  the  contents  of 
a  trawl  undergo  while  hauled  in  from  deep  water,  anything  small 
enough  to  go  through  the  finest  meshes  of  the  bottom  net 
should  be  retained.  Yet  large  shells  appear  to  be  rare  in  the 
great  depths,  and  are  usually  so  fragile  that  their  destruction  or 
fracture  is  almost  inevitable.  Deep-sea  dredging  has  thus  af- 
forded few  specimens  of  even  moderately  large  size,  judged  by 
the  standard  of  shallow-water  or  littoral  shells.  Among  naked 
mollusks  several  species  of  unusual  size  have  been  found  by  dif- 
ferent expeditions.  One  as  large  as  an  orange,  discovered  by 
the  "  Challenger,"  was  named  by  Dr.  Bergh  Bathydoris  abys- 
sorum.  It  is  perhaps  the  largest  nudibranch  known ;  it  has  a 
transparent  and  gelatinous  consistency,  and  with  neither  eyes 
nor  otocysts  it  must  have  led  a  remarkably  sluggish  existence, 
blind  and  deaf  as  it  was. 

Abyssal  mollusks  are  probably  less  active  and  energetic  than 
their  congeners  of  the  shores.  This  is  indicated  by  the  loose- 
ness of  the  tissues,  less  favorable  to  prompt  and  violent  action 
than  a  more  compact  muscular  system  would  be.     The    tena- 

^  Mr.  Dall  has  kindly  prepared  for  me     mellibranchs,  and  supervised  the  drawing 
the  account  of  the  Gasteropods  and   La^     of  the  figures. 


Big.  281.  —  Architenthis  princeps.     ^j.     (VerrilL) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. MOLLUSKS.  63 

cious  character  of  the  mud  forming  the  ocean  floor  would  also 
tend  to  make  motion  through  it  slow  and  difficult.  The  deli- 
cacy of  the  shells,  their  extreme  fragility  and  tenuity  often  re- 
minding one  of  the  delicate  dwellings  of  some  of  the  tropical 
land  snails,  would  unfit  them  for  constant  friction  and  collision, 
either  from  the  motions  of  the  animal  itself  or  of  the  waters  in 
which  it  lives.  Swimming  moUusks,  such  as  the  squids  and 
cuttle-fishes,  make  an  exception ;  but  the  deep-sea  representa- 
tives of  these  groups  are  far  softer  and  less  muscular  than  their 
shallow- water  allies.  » 

The  colors  of  the  abyssal  shells  are  almost  always  faint, 
though  often  pretty.  The  iridescence  or  pearly  character  of  the 
shell  is  in  many  groups  of  peculiar  brilliancy  and  beauty,  and  it 
seems  as  if  the  texture  of  the  non-iridescent  shells  in  the  abys- 
sal species  gave  out  a  sort  of  sheen  which  is  wanting  in  their 
shallow-water  allies. 

We  do  not  find  in  the  deep-sea  species  those  sturdy  knobs  and 
stout  varices  which  ornament  the  turbinellas  and  conchs  of  shal- 
low water,  and  have  made  the  great  group  of  rock-purples,  or 
Murices,  so  attractive  to  collectors ;  nevertheless  many  abyssal 
shells  have  an  exquisite  and  rich  sculpture,  and  their  ornamen- 
tation is  wonderfully  delicate.  There  seems  to  be  an  especial 
tendency  to  strings  of  bead-like  knobs,  revolving  striae  and 
threads,  and  delicate  transverse  waves.  Many  of  the  deep-sea 
forms,  selected  from  all  sorts  of  groups  indifferently,  have  a  row 
of  knobs  or  pustules  following  the  line  of  the  suture  and 
immediately  in  front  of  it.  Their  surface  is  also  frequently 
etched  with  a  sort  of  shagreen  pattern,  varied  in  detail  and 
hardly  perceptible  except  by  a  microscope,  but  extremely  pretty. 
In  some  the  entire  surface  is  profusely  adorned  with  arbores- 
cent prickles ;  in  others,  it  is  covered  with  the  most  delicate 
shelly  blisters,  systematically  arranged,  which  perish  with  a 
touch. 

Deep-sea  mollusks  may  be  understood  to  include  all  those 
living  on  the  continental  shelf,  and  in  the  abysses  at  depths 
where  algae  do  not  flourish,  the  limit  depending  somewhat  on 
the  locality.  Those  living  only  above  form  the  littoral  fauna, 
which,  roughly  speaking,  may  be  said  to  reach  from  the  shores 


64  THREE    CRUISES.  OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

to  about  one  hundred  fathoms  in  depth.  With  them  are  often 
mixed  deep-water  forms,  which  extend  their  range  to  shallow 
water  without  however  being  characteristic  of  it. 

As  in  other  groups,  the  limits  of  many  species  of  moUusks 
are  more  sharply  defined  on  the  side  of  cold  than  on  that  of 
heat.  The  difference  between  45°  and  40°  F.  may  absolutely 
check  the  distribution  of  a  species  which  would  find  no  incon- 
venience in  a  rise  of  temperature  from  45°  to  80°.  As  has  been 
observed  in  fishes,  this  limit  is  probably  connected  with  the  tem- 
perature necessary  for  development  of  the  young,  rather  than 
with  the  resisting  powers  of  the  adult. 

It  would  seem  as  if  the  conditions  existing  on  the  floor  of  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  ocean  offered  attractions  for  only  a  limited 
variety  of  forms.  The  bottom  is  generally  composed  of  ex- 
tremely fine  impalpable  mud,  and  in  many  portions  of  the  abys- 
sal area  offers  no  stones  or  other  prominences  as  points  of 
attachment  for  sedentary  mollusks.  It  is  not  quite  destitute  of 
such  irregularities,  however,  and  all  are  utilized  by  the  abyssal 
population.  In  the  absence  of  stones,  most  unusual  selections 
are  made.  The  chitinous  tubes  of  hydroids  and  the  irregular 
leathery  dwellings  of  tubicolous  annelids  are  occupied,  after  their 
original  owners  are  dead  or  dispossessed,  by  diverse  little  lim- 
pets. The  long  spines  of  the  abyssal  sea-urchins  offer  a  welcome 
perch  for  species  of  Cadulus,  which,  when  they  grow  too  large 
to  find  a  satisfactory  foothold,  secrete  a  shelly  pedestal  which 
serves  them  for  life. 

A  bivalve,  Modiolaria  polita,  related  to  the  ordinary  mus- 
sel of  northern  seas,  spins  a  sort  of  nest  of  stout  byssal  threads, 
in  which  it  is  completely  concealed,  and  which  protects  in  its 
meshes  not  only  the  young  fry  of  the  maker,  but  various  little 
commensal  mollusks  of  all  orders.  Only  a  small  number  of 
mollusks  live  as  commensals.  Species  of  Stylifer,  a  small  gas- 
teropod,  live  associated  with  star-fishes,  sea-urchins,  and  other 
echinoderms.  Dr.  Stimpson  discovered  another  living  within 
an  annelid ;  and  they  are  often  found  imbedded  in  branches  of 
corals,  of  which  they  have  become  a  part  as  it  were. 

Those  mollusks  which  live  on  algae  and  other  vegetable  matters 
are  almost  absolutely  wanting  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  where 


CHARACTEKISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. GASTEROPODS.  65 

vegetation,  except  as  a  sediment  from  near  the  surface,  does  not 
exist,  so  that  the  flesh-eating  moUusks  of  the  deep,  when  within 
reach  of  pelagic  food,  or  of  the  carcasses  of  dead  fishes  and 
other  decaying  organic  matter,  are  not  obHged  to  prey  upon 
each  other  to  the  same  extent  as  do  the  shallow-water  forms. 
The  latter  take  part  in  a  fierce  struggle  for  existence  amidst  the 
vicissitudes  of  tidal  and  storm  waves,  variation  in  elevation  of 
land,  and  a  vastly  denser  population  of  all  sorts.  Compara- 
tively few  of  the  shells  dredged  from  deep  water  show  the  frac- 
tures and  injuries  so  common  in  shells  from  littoral  dredgings, 
or  the  drill-holes  made  by  the  so-called  lingual  ribbons,  a  terri- 
ble boring  weapon  of  enemies  of  their  own  kind.  Most  of  the 
enemies  of  deep-water  molltisks  are  blind,  or  at  any  rate  can 
have  little  power  of  vision  for  objects  not  luminous.  The  ab- 
sence of  violent  motion  in  deep  water  removes  any  mechanical 
effects  of  that  medium  from  the  category  of  modifying  in- 
fluences upon  the  animal.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  the  factors 
affecting  the  restriction  of  tendencies  to  variation  in  the  form, 
color,  and  sculpture  of  littoral  species  are  nearly  eliminated  in 
the  abyssal  regions  ;  so  that  we  may  expect  in  the  deep  sea  a 
very  wide  range  of  variation  in  form  and  sculpture  within  the 
specific  limits  of  the  "  flexible  "  species,  and  an  almost  complete 
uniformity  over  very  wide  areas  of  the  forms  which  we  may  con- 
sider as  "  inflexible  "  species. 

Many  of  the  gasteropods  must  lead  a  more  or  less  roving  life 
in  search  of  their  prey ;  others,  like  Dentalium,  live  buried  in 
ooze.  A  fifreat  number  of  the  mollusks  are  blind.  The  lamelli- 
branchs  live  either  buried  in  the  ooze,  or  on  the  surface  of  harder 
bottoms  anchored  by  the  byssus.  Most  of  them  are  stationary, 
though,  judging  from  analogy  with  some  of  the  shallow-water 
genera,  they  may  be  capable  of  considerable  change  of  locality. 

Those  mollusks  which  subsist  upon  other  animals,  with  a  hard 
covering,  so  that  they  have  to  bore  or  break  their  way  to  their 
food,  are  much  less  numerous  in  the  deep  sea  than  those  which 
feed  upon  soft  tissues,  or  kill  their  living  prey  by  bites  with  poi- 
sonous fangs.  The  latter,  the  Pleurotomidae,  outnumber  any 
other  group  of  mollusks  in  the  abyssal  fauna ;  they  are  charac- 
terized by  a  notch  near  the  junction  of  the  outer  margin  of 


66 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


the  aperture  with  the  outside  of  the  preceding  whorl.  This 
notch  permits  the  refuse  matters  discharged  from  the  anal  open- 
ing to  escape  outside  of  the  shell  without  fouling  the  water 
which  is  used  by  the  gills  in  respiration.  These  moUusks  are 
found  at  all  depths,  are  animal  feeders,  and  some  of  them  are 
provided  with  barbed  hollow  teeth,  having  a  duct  to  which  a 
gland  supplies  a  poisonous  substance ;  such  an  apparatus  is  even 
more  fully  and  generally  developed  in  the  related  group  of 
Conidae,  few  of  Avhich  reach  any  great  depth. 

Among  those  Pleurotomidse  which  would  attract  especial  at- 
tention is  the  exquisite  Pleurotoma  {Ancistrosyrinx)  elegans 
(Fig.  282),  one  of  the  most  beautiful  gems  of  the  sea.    It  grows 

to   an   inch   and  a  half  in 

length,    and  is  of   a  light 

straw  color ;    the  posterior 

surface  of  the  whorls  is  con- 
cave and  carinated,  the  cari- 

nse  being  delicately  fringed 

with     sharp    triangular 

points ;  it  has  a  deep  notch, 

which  in  perfect  specimens 

has  a  raised  margin.     This 

species   descends   to    eight 

hundred  fathoms,  and  has 

been   found    alive  at  Bar- 

b  a  d  o  s  in  seventy  -  three 
fathoms.  Its  fossil  allies  extend  as  far  back  as  the  eocene. 
Pleurotoma  suhgrundifera  Dall  (Fig.  283)  is  a  form  which,  in- 
stead of  having  the  margin  turned  toward  the  tip  of  the  spire, 
has  the  sharp  keel  bent  in  the  opposite  direction  toward  the 
canal,  like  the  edge  of  an  umbrella.  Another  pretty  species, 
dredged  in  deep  water  both  by  the  "  Blake  "  and  the  "  Challen- 
ger," is  Plewotoma  Blakeana  ;  and  still  another,  short  and 
stout,  with  delicate  reticulate  sculpture,  has  also  been  obtained 
by  the  Fish  Commission,  the  P.  curta  of  Prof.  Verrill.  Both 
these  resemble  in  shape  the  Belas  of  the  arctic  seas.  A  very 
elegant  and  widely  distributed  little  shell  is  the  P.  limacina, 
polished,  smooth,  with  a  beaded  garland  at  the  suture ;  it  is 


Fig.  282.  —  Pleurotoma 
(Ancistrosyrinx)  ele- 
gans.    ?. 


Fig.  283.  —  Pleurotoma 
suhgrundifera.  About  |. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


GASTEROPODS. 


67 


extremely  thin,  with  peculiar  flexuous  growth  lines  and  no  oper- 
culum. The  variety  in  this  group  seems  endless,  and  in  num- 
ber of  species  it  is  likely  to  rival  even  some  of  the  great  groups 
of  land  shells. 

The  groups  of  less  specialized  character,  such  as  the  tusk- 
shells  (Dentalium),  are  rather  abundant  in  species,  more  so  than 
those  which  intervene  between  them  and  the  highly  specialized 
Pleurotomidse  ;  but  our  knowledge  of  the  deep-sea  moUusks  is 
yet  too  imperfect  to  afford  any  important  generaliza- 
tions on  this  score.  So  far  as  determined,  the  groups 
systematically  lowest  in  the  scale,  like  the  Chitonidae 
or  mail-shells,  are  rare  in  deep  water,  yet  the  deep- 
sea  representatives  of  this  family  belong  to  the  more 
archaic  sections  of  their  class.  The  tusk-shells  are 
curved  tubes,  almost  all  white  or  delicately  tinted, 
and  varying  chiefly  in  curvature,  calibre,  and  super- 
ficial sculpture  or  color.  The  most  remarkable  of 
these,  among  the  slender  species,  is  Dentalium  per- 
longum  (Fig.  284),  polished,  white,  nearly  smooth, 
and  attaining  a  greater  relative  length  than  any  other 
species,  over  four  inches,  with  a  diameter  of  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  at  one  end,  and  half  as  much  or  less  at  the 
other.  It  reaches  the  greatest  depths  dredged  by  the 
"  Blake  "  (over  2,000  fathoms),  and  has  not  appeared 
in  shallow  water.  There  are  many  other  species,  but 
it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  one  peculiar  group  of 
the  family,  the  genus  Cadulus,  containing  numerous 
species,  all  of  which  are  small,  polished,  pellucid  shells. 
They  expand  their  little  tubes  to  a  sort  of  bulb,  more 
or  less  prominent,  which  diminishes  before  they  are 
completed,  so  that  the  calibre  of  the  aperture  is  smaller 
in  the  adult  than  in  the  young;  while  in  the  true 
Dentalium  the  diameter  gradually  increases  with  age. 
The  Caduli  are  quite  characteristic  of  the  deeper  waters  of 
the  sea. 

Another  group  also  largely  represented  in  the  abyssal  region 
is  that  of  the  Trochidse.  These  are  among  the  most  beautiful 
of   spiral  shells,  often  brilliantly  colored,  profusely  sculptured, 


68 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    ''  BLAKE." 


and  very  pearly.  The  shallow-water  forms  may  subsist  on  stony 
algae  or  other  plants,  but  the  majority  are  flesh-eaters,  or  feed 
upon  the  corallines  and  foraminifers,  parts  of  whose  shells  are 
found  in  their  stomachs. 

While  not  so  brilliantly  colored,  the  deep-water  Trochidae  are 
unsurpassed  in  beauty  by  their  shallow-water  allies.  They  gain 
in  delicacy  and  iridescence  what  they  lose  in  depth  of  tint.  One 
of  the  handsomest  forms  is  CalUostoma  Bairdii  Verrill,  whose 

pale,  depressed,  and  more 
delicate  southern  variety,  C 
psyche,  was  first  dredged  by 
Pourtales.  It  is,  like  many 
other  species  of  similar  range, 
tinted  with  pink  and  straw- 
color,  while  farther  north  it 
assumes  brown  and  red  livery. 
Even  more  delicate  and  pecu- 
liar in  the  concave  outline  of 
its  granular  spire  and  polished 
base  is  CalUostoma  aurora 
(Fig.  285),  of  which  only  a 
single  specimen  is  known,  —  a  genus  most  characteristic  of 
Western  America.  It  seems  as  if  differences  of  temperature 
and  food  were  indicated  in  very  similar  ways  between  northern 
and  tropical  animals,  whether  they  live 
in  the  deep  sea  or  inhabit  the  land. 
A  real  treasure  of  the  sea  is  Gaza 
superha  (Fig.  286),  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  widely  distributed  abys- 
sal shells.  Were  it  not  for  its  lovely 
iridescent  pearly  sheen,  it  might  be 
taken,  on  a  casual  examination,  for 
one  of  our  large  straw-colored  land 
snails.  Other  characteristic  species,  widely  distributed,  are  Mar- 
garita ceglees  and  Leptothyra  induta  (Fig.  287)  of  Watson,  small 
white  shells  from  deep  water,  named  from  examples  collected  by 
the  "  Challenger,"  and  especially  illustrating  the  luxury  in  vari- 
ation which  has  aWeady  been  referred  to,  and  which  has  led  in 


Pig.   285.  —  CalUostoma  aurora. 


Fig-.  286.  —  Gaza  superba, 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-BEA    TYPES. 


GASTEROPODS. 


69 


the  case  of  the  former  to  the  application  of  several  specific  names 
The  depth  in  which  these  have  been  found 
varies  from  125  to  over  1,000  fathoms. 

Pleurotomaria  is  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able forms  dredged  in  the  continental  region. 
Four  recent  species  of  the  genus  are  known. 
Its  history  dates  back  to  the  earliest  fossilifer- 
ous  rocks  of  the  cambrian,  and  to  the  dredg- 
ings  of  the  "  Hassler  "  and  the  "  Blake  "  are 
due  the  only  knowledge  yet  acquired  of  its 
soft  parts.     Two  species  are  found  in  the 


Fig.  287.  —  Lcptothyra 
iuduta.     ^. 


Fig.   288. — Pleurotomaria  Adansomana.     |. 


West  Indies,  of  which  the 
finest  is  P.  Adansomana 
(Fig.  288),  from  about  200 
fathoms.  The  shell  is  four 
inches  in  diameter,  richly 
pearly  within,  and  orna- 
mented with  elegant  red 
and  brown  colors  exter- 
nally. The  anal  notch  in 
this  species  extends  nearly 
half  the  length  of  the  last 
whorl.  A  second  species, 
less  brilliant  and  with  a 
shorter  notch,  is  P.  Quoy- 
ana  (Fig.  289),  also  ob- 


tained living  by  the  "  Blake." 

Among  other  univalves,  the  Mar- 
ginellidae  are  represented  by  such 
species  as  Marginella  succinea  Con- 
rad, extending  from  shallow  water 
to  several  hundred  fathoms,  and  M. 
Watsoni  (Fig.  290),  characteristic  of 
great  depths.  The  Ringiculidse,  of 
which  many  species  are  known  fossil, 
are  illustrated  by  P.  leptoch&lla 
(Fig.  291),  described  first  by  Brug- 
none  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  afterward  from  deep  water 


Fig.  289.  —  Pleurotomaria 
ana.     ^. 


Quoy- 


70 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


Fig.  290.  —  Marg-iuella 
Watsoni.      ?. 


Fig.  291.  —  Ringicula 
leptocheila.     * . 


in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  on  the  coasts  of  America.  Cancella~ 
ria  Smithii  (Fig.  292),  an  elegant  new  species 
of  a  comparatively  rare  group ;  Mitra  Swainsoni 
(Fig.  293)  of  Broderip,  from  the  deep  water  of  the 
West  Indies,  first  described  from  Chilian  waters ; 
and  Typhis  longicornis  (Fig.  294),  a  pretty  flesh- 
colored  deep-water  species,  —  may  be  cited  as  ex- 
amples of  other  groups,  the  last  being  particu- 
larly remarkable  from  the  length  of  its  spines, 
which  could  only  exist  in  the  shell  of  an  animal 
surrounded  by.  a  soft  bottom  and  living  in  per- 
fectly calm  water. 


Fig.  292. 
Oaneellaria 
Smithii.     |. 


Fig.  293.  —  Mitra  Swainsoni.     '{. 


Kg.  294.  —  Typhis  longicornis.     | . 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. GASTBROPODS. 


71 


Another  illustration  of  the  fragile  and  delicate  forms  living 
in  the  abysses  is  Triforis  longissimus  (Fig.  295),  only  thir- 


Fi}j.  295.  —  Triforis  longissinius.     ?. 

teen  hundredths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  column  of 
twenty  or  thirty  whorls,  reaching  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length ;  the  perfect  shell  must  have  over  forty  turns, 
but  it  is  always  decapitated.     Siliquaria  modesta  (Fig.  296), 


Fig.  296.— Siliqnaria 
modesta.     ^v®- 


Fig.  297.  —  Vermetus 
erectus.     i;^. 


one  of  the  irregular  gasteropods,  with  a  slit  like  a  Pleui:otoma- 
ria,  so  frail  as  almost  to  perish  with  a  touch,  lives  in  the  soft 
mud  of  the  abysses,  while  the  stouter  Vermetus  erectus  (Fig. 
297)  finds  a  foothold  on  dead  corals  and  shells.  The  species 
of  this  genus  are  comparatively  shallow-water  animals. 

The  majority  of  the  bivalves  are  characterized  by  great  deli- 
cacy of  shell  and  sculpture.  In  the  deep-water  representatives 
of  the  family  of  scallops,  the  constituent  prisms  are  often  large 
enough  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye,  and  the  shell  is  strength- 
ened within  by  slight  riblets  radiating  from  the  hinge.    Pecten 


72 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE.' 


Dalli  (Fig.  298),  of  E.  A.  Smith,  frequently  dredged  by  the 
"  Blake,"  grows  to  a  considerable  size,  but  is  as  thin  as  mica 
and  nearly  as  transparent ;  P.  phrygmm  Dall  (Fig.  299)  is  re- 


Fig.  299. —  Pecten  phrygiiim.    \. 
Pig.  298. — Pecten  (Anmsium)  Dalli.     \. 

lated  to  miocene  species,  and  has  a  very  complicated  sculpture. 
Cetoconcha  bulla  (Figs.  300,  301)  and  C.  elongata  Dall  (Fig. 


Fig.  300.  Fig.  301. 

Cetoconcha  bulla.     |. 


Fig.  302.  —  Cetoconcha  elon- 
gata.    1. 


302),  two  species  of  a  singular  new  genus,  are  almost  as  unsta- 
ble in  their  framework  as  a  drop  of  water.     Nuculse  are  abun- 


Fig.  303.  —  Tindaria  cytherea.    ^j*. 

Fig.  304.  —  Cardium  peramahilis.     ^. 

dant.     One  of  them,  Tindaria  cytherea  (Fig.  303),  the  finest 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


LAMELLIBRANCHS. 


73 


and  largest  of  its  genus,  white,  with  a  golden  epidermis,  is  pecu- 
liar in  its  shape,  which  resembles  that  of  a  small  member  of  the 
Veneridse.  A  delicately  sculptured  Cardium,  sometimes  painted 
with  bright  touches  of  yellow  and  scarlet,  Cardium  perama- 
bilis  (Fig.  30i),  the  most  lovely  species  of  the  genus  from  deep 
water,  shares  with  the  little  Pecten  (ATnusium)  Pourtalesianum 
Dall  the  distinction  of  bright  tints  where  pallor  is  the  rule. 
The  shell  is  white,  but  the  spines  covering  it  are  orange  or 
crimson.  A  common  and  characteristic  deep-water  form  is 
Limopsis  aurita  Brocchi,  well  known  as  a  tertiary  fossil  in 
Europe.  A  small  brown  Astarte  is  almost  ubi- 
quitous, ranging  in  depth  from  13  to  over  1,600 
fathoms,  and  in  locality  from  the  tropics  to  New 
England.  The  northern  specimens  attain  many 
times  the  size  of  those  from  the  Antilles.  A 
highly  polished  rich  golden  brown  Modiola, 
M.  jiolita  V.  &  S.  (Fig.  305),  allied  to  our  com- 
mon mussel,  attains  a  large  size  in  great  depths 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic.  But  its  shell  is 
very  thin  ;  it  spins  a  large  nest  of  byssal  threads, 
resembling  a  handful  of  cotton  waste  thoroughly 
drenched  with  the  finest  mud,  so  worthless  in 
appearance  that  only  a  biologist  would  suspect  the  treasure 
hidden  within. 

The  Cetoconcha  above  mentioned  are  characterized  by  gills 

reduced  to  a  mere  interrupted 
line  of  low  lamellae  on  the  ven- 
tral surface ;  they  are  related 
to  Poromya,  which  has  ordinary 
gills.  But  there  is  another 
group,  abundant  in  deep 
water,  called  Cuspidaria,  still 
more  remarkable  in  having  ap- 
parently no  gills  at  all ;  their 
shells  are  provided  with  a  long  slender  rostrum,  like  a  handle, 
as  shown  in  C.  microrhina  Dall  (Figs.  306,  307),  dredged  from 
continental  depths.  A  striking  group,  from  the  beauty  of 
form  and  sculpture  exhibited  by  its  species,  is  Verticordia,  the 


Fig.  305.  —  Modiola 
polita.     |. 


Fig.    306.  —  Cuspidaria  TaicrorMna.     ^, 


74 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


largest  known  species  being  one  of  the  "  Blake  "  treasures,  V. 

elegantissima  Dall  (Fig.  308),  a 
brilliant  pearly  shell ;  one  of  the 
smallest  is  V,  perversa  Dall  (Fig. 
309),  which  has  the  larger  bulge 
in  front  of  the  hinge,  contrary  to 
the  usual  rule. 
A  lovely  new  group  related  to  Thracia  and  Anatina  is  repre- 


Fig'.  307.  —  Cuspidaria  mierorhina. 


Fig.  308.  —  Verticordia  ele- 
gantissima.    |. 


Fig.  309. 
Verticordia 
pervei-sa.    ^ 


Fig.  '•'A^.  —  ijusma   eit 
gans.    -^. 


sented  in  deep  water  by  a  single  species,  which  has  been  named 
Bushia  elegans.    (Fig.  310.) 

We  may  also  mention,  as  evidently  a  deep-water  group,  the 

shells  of  the  subgenus  Meiocardia,  re- 
lated to  Isocardia  cor  of  Europe. 
These  are  remarkable  for  the  way  in 
which  the  tips  of  the  valves  are 
twisted  and  turned  away  from  each 
other.  They  are  common  tertiary 
fossils;  but  only  a  few  living 
species  are  known,  and,  excepting 
Isocardia  cor,  these  are  tropical. 
The  dredgings  of  the  "  Blake  "  and  the  "  Albatross  "  have  re- 
vealed a  new  Meiocardia  in  the  Antilles,  the  others  being  all 
Oriental,  and  this  has  been  named  M.  Agassizii.    (Fig.  311.) 

A  new  group,  differing  from  Isocardia  and  Meiocardia  in  hav- 
ing no  lateral  teeth,  is  Vesicomya,  previously  unknown  from 
American  waters,  the  largest  known  species  of  which  is  a  form 
now  named  V.  venusta  (Fig.  312),  from  Antillean  specimens. 
A  much  smaller  species,   named  V.  pilula,  is  reported  by  the 


Fig.  311. 


—  Meiocardia  Agas- 
sizii.    1^5. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  —  BRACHIOPODS.        75 

"  Challenger  "  from  the  deepest  water  in  which  any  bivalve  has 
yet  been  found  living. 

There  are  almost  innumerable  illustra- 
tions of  beauty,  adaptation,  or  unusual 
characteristics  which  might  be  cited,  but 
to  those  unacquainted  with  the  objects 
themselves  such  an  enumeration  would 
be  tedious.  The  enthusiastic  student  and 
collector  alone  can  find  pleasure  in  what 

,,  ^  ^        ^     -  -  Fig.  312.  —  Vesicomya 

would,  seem  to  most  people  a  dry  com-  venusta.    i^. 

bination  of  a  lexicon  and  a  catalogue. 

BRACHIOPODS. 

Until  quite  lately  brachiopods  were  rarities  in  collections ;  but 
since  the  days  of  dredging  expeditions  we  know  that  they  are 
very  numerous  at  favorable  localities  on  rocky  or  stony  bottoms. 
They  do  not  seem  to  penetrate  very  great  depths,  naturally 
finding  no  point  of  attachment  in  the  soft  ooze  of  the  deep 
waters,  and  but  few  species  are  thus  far  known  to  extend  beyond 
600  fathoms.  The  largest  known  species  have  been  dredged 
from  the  abyssal  region,  and  young  specimens  are  frequently 
found  attached  to  the  older  ones.  None  of  the  deep-water  spe- 
cies have  the  brilliant  coloring  characteristic  of  the  common  lit- 
toral species  belonging  to  the  g^nus  Lingula.  The  principal 
differences  upon  which  their  classification  is  based  are  those  of 
the  so-called  loop,  the  calcified  support  of  the  brachia,  and  the 
structural  details  of  the  valves. 

The  recent  brachiopods  are  specially  interesting  as  represen- 
tatives of  a  group  which  attained  an  extraordinary  development 
in  very  early  ages,  and  has  been  represented  in  all  formations. 
They  have  a  most  extensive  geographical  distribution,  and  a 
great  bathymetrical  range.  They  are  found  at  all  levels,  from 
pools  left  by  the  tides  to  a  depth  of  3,000  fathoms.  The  num- 
ber of  living  species  is  small  compared  to  the  hosts  which  flour- 
ished in  the  silurian,  devonian,  and  carboniferous,  from  which 
time  they  have  steadily  diminished  in  number.  Nearly  1,700 
species  occur  in  the  silurian,  but  there  are  not  more  than  120 
known  from  the  seas  of  the  present  day.     Their  position  in  the 


76 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 


animal  kingdom  is  under  discussion,  though  they  have  until  lately 
been  generally  classed  with  the  mollusks.  As  the  brachiopods 
date  back  to  the  cambrian,  it  is  natural  that  we  should  find  it 
difficult  strictly  to  define  their  affinities  with  recent  types,  since 
with  very  slight  modifications  they  have  persisted  from  remote 
antiquity  to  the  present  day,  during  all  the  intervening  con- 
ditions of  existence. 

Like  the  lamellibranchs,  they  are  provided  with  two  valves. 
These,  however,  as  well  as  the  soft  parts,  are  bilaterally  sym- 
metrical in  relation  to  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  shell. 

The  most  common  species  we  collected,  Terebratula  cubensis 
(Figs.  313,  314),  was  discovered  by  Pourtales,  in  from  100  to 


Fig.  313.     \. 

Fig.  314.     l^. 
Terebratula  cubensis.     (Davidson. ) 

270  fathoms,  in  rocky  ground  off  Havana  and  from  the  east  end 
of  the  Florida  Reef.  It  attaches  itself  by  a  short  and  stout  pe- 
duncle; the  shell  is  globular,  nearly  white,  translucent.  An- 
other most  abundant  species  associated  with  the  former  is  Wald- 
heimia  Jloridana  (Figs.  315,  316),  which  is  common  on  rocky 


Fig.  315. 


Waldheimia  floridana.     i. 


Fig.  316. 


bottoms  between  100  and  200  fathoms.  It  is  of  a  grayish  or 
brownish  white  horn-color,  and  belongs  to  a  group  containing 
many  living  and  fossil  species.  Much  less  common,  but  with  a 
more  solid  test,  is  Terebratulina  Cailleti.     (Fig;  317.)     This 


CHARA.CTER1STIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. BRACHIOPODS. 


77 


small  species  extends  to  a  depth  of  nearly  500  fathoms.  A 
most  common  Atlantic  species,  T.  caput-serpentis  (Fig.  318),  is 
found  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  as  far  south 


Fig.   317.  —  Terebratulina 
Cailleti.    |.     (Davidson.) 


Pig.  318.  —  Terebratula  caput- 
serpentis.      1-^p.    (Davidson.) 


as  Cape  Cod.  A  species  of  Platydia,  identical  with  the  Medi- 
terranean P.  anomioides  (Figs.  319,  320),  has  been  dredged  by 
the  "  Blake  "  in  237  fathoms.  It  represents  the  group  of  brach- 
iopods  with  shells  having  loops  and  conspicuous  perforations. 


Fig.  319. 

Platydia  anomioides. 


Fig.  320. 
(Davidson.) 


A  few  specimens  of  Crania  (Fig.  321),  a  genus  not  before 
obtained  on  the  American  coast,  were  dredged  by  Pourtales  off 
the  Samboes  and  Sand  Key,  at 
depths  ranging  between  100  and 
200  fathoms.  Living  specimens  of 
Dissina  atlantica  (Fig.  322)  have 
been  taken  by  the  "  Blake  "  and  by 
the  Fish  Commission  at  the  depth 
of  over  2,000  fathoms.  They  are 
usually  attached  to  concretions. 


Fig.  321. 
Crania    Pourta- 
lesii.  2^5..  (Dall.) 


Fig.  822.  —  Discina 
atlantica.  |.  (Ver- 
riU.) 


The  simple  and  compound  Ascidians  are  eminently  littoral 
and  shallow-water  types,  and  but  few  of  them  extend  to  any 
great  depth.  Neither  the  "  Blake  "  nor  the  "  Challenger  "  col- 
lected any  very  remarkable  abyssal  types,  and  the  species  were 
either  closely  allied  to  or  identical  with  well-known  genera. 


73 


THREE  CRUISES  OP  THE  "  BLAKE. 


BRYOZOA. 


In  the  study  of  no  group  is  abundant  material  more  necessary 
than  in  that  of  the  bryozoans. 

In  the  majority  of  animals,  we  are  accustomed  to  look  at  dif- 


Fig.  323.  —  Crisia  denti- 
culata.     ?. 


Fig.  324.  —  Diastopora 
repens.     \. 


Fig.  325.  —  Fareiminaria 
delicatissima.      i .     (Busk.) 


ferences  due  to  growth  as  transitory,  and  we  define  species  from 
their  full-grown  stages ;  but  in  the  bryozoans  the  differences  of 
growth  are  persistent  in  the  individuals  of  the 
colony,  while  they  may  propagate  at  very  dif- 
ferent stages  of  the  colonial  development.     It 


Fig.  323  a.  —  Crisia  denti- 
cnlata.     Magnified.     (Smitt. ) 


Fig.  324  a.  —  Diastopora  repens. 
Magnified.     (Smitt.) 


thus   becomes   most  difficult,  without  a  full   pig,  325  a.— Farcimi- 
knowledgfe  of  the  entire  development,  to  char-      nana  delicatissima. 

^      .        °  .  J  •  -^    ^       •.       X  Magnified.     (Busk.) 

acterize  a  species  and   assign  it  to  its  true 

family  or  genus.    Among  the  bryozoa,  more  than  three  quarters 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES.  —  BRYOZOA. 


79 


of  the  deep-water  species  belong  to  the  section  of  the  Cheilosto- 
mata,  while  the  Ctenostomata  have  comparatively  few  represen- 
tatives. Busk  says  that  the  shallower-water  species  appear  to 
have  the  widest  geographical  distribution.  That  is  apparently 
not  the  case  with  the  species  collected  by  the  "  Blake." 

According  to  Professor  Smitt's  Reports  we  may  mention 
among  the  "  Blake  "  Bryozoa  the  cosmopolitan  Crisia  eburnea, 
the  form  known  as  C  denticulata  (Figs.  323,  323  «),  and,  from 
306  fathoms,  the  Scandinavian  Diastopora  repens  (Figs.  324, 
324  a),  a  well-known  ramified  form  creeping  on  Terehratula  cu- 
hensis.  This  species  is  also  characteristic  of  the  crag,  and  per- 
haps identical  with  a  cretaceous  form.  It  seems  as  if  the  species 
of  this  group  assumed  a  somewhat  more  elongate  and  simpler 
form  in  proportion  to  their  bathymetrical  range.  Busk,  from 
an  examination  of  the  extensive  collection  of  the  "  Challenger," 
considers  the  species  of  Farciminaria  (Figs.  325,  325  a)  as  the 
most  characteristic  of  the  abyssal  bryozoans,  the  preeminent 
forms  of  the  delicate  and  flexible  types  inhabiting  the  tranquil 
depths  of  the  ocean. 

MeTTibranipora  canariensis  (Fig.  326),  a  widely  spread  spe- 


Fig.  326.  —  Membranipora         Fig.  327.  —  Cellularia  cervi- 
canarieiisis.     ^f*.  comis.     f. 


Fig.  327  a.— Cellularia 
cervicomis.  Magnified. 
(Smitt.) 


cies,  found  in  both  hemispheres,  and  common  in  the  tertiaries  ^ 

1  There  are   among   the   Florida  and    period,  and  about  five  either  the  same  or 
West  Indian  bryozoans  no  less  than  sixteen    closely  allied  to  cretaceous  types, 
species  identical  with  those  of  the  tertiary 


80 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


of  Sicily  and  England,  is  abundant  off  Florida  to  a  depth  of 
over  120  fathoms.  It  generally  takes  the  shape  of  a  hollow 
cone.  Among  the  Cellularise,  Cellularia  cervicornis  (Figs.  327, 
327  a)  and  Caber ea  retiformis  (Fig.  328)  are  interesting  repre- 


Fig.  328.  —  Caberea  retiformis. 
Magnified.    (Smitt.) 


Fig.  329.  — Vincularia  abyssicola.  ^. 


sentatives,  the  last  closely  allied  to  a  typical  Australian  species. 
Other  species  of  this  group  are  similarly  allied  to  Australian 
types.  Vincularia  abyssicola  (Fig.  329),  from  450  fathoms,  is  a 
most  variable  species,  likely  to  be  placed  even  in  distant  families 


Fig  380.  —  Escharipora 
stellata.     ^. 


Fig.  330  a.  —  Escharipora  stel- 
Jata.    Magnified.     (Smitt.) 


at  different  periods  of  its  growth,  while  either  in  the  -creeping 
or  in  the  erect  stage.     Escharipora  stellata  (Figs.  330,  330  a) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


BRYOZOA. 


81 


is  one  of  the  most  common  of  the  West  Indian  bryozoans  inside 
the  two-hundred-fathom  line,  but  extending  to  nearly  500  fath- 


Fig.  331.  —  Tessadroma  boreale.     |. 


Vig.  331  a. — Tessadroma  bo- 
reale.    Magnified.     (Smitt.) 


oms.  Equally  common  is  Tessadroma  bo- 
reale (Figs.  331,  331  a),  a  species  not  in- 
frequent on  the  east  side  of  the  Atlantic 
from  Spitzbergen  to  the  Azores. 

A  very  common  incrusting  type  found 
growing  on  shells  and  corals  is  Hippothoa 
biaperta  (Figs.  332,  332  a),  which  goes 
back  to  the  tertiary. 

A  species  of  Cellepora  is  very  abundant 


f    ■"'% 


Fig.  332  a.  —  Hippothoa 
biaperta.  Greatly  magni- 
fied.    (Smitt) 


Kg.  332.— Hippothoa  bia,- 
perta.     ^. 


82 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


in  depths  ranging  from  15  to  nearly  300  fathoms,  C.  margarita- 
eea.     (Figs.  333,  333  a.) 


Fig.  333.  —  Cellepora  iiiargari- 
taeea.      ? . 


Fig.  333  a.  —  Cellepora  margari- 
tacea?    Magnified.     (Smitt.) 


Among  the  Bryozoa  often  found  in  large  communities,  form- 
ing lawns  of  delicate  limestone  plants,  may  be  specially  men- 


Big.  334.  —  Biflustra  macrodon.    f .  Fig.  33.5.  —  Porina  subsulcata.     f . 

tioned  Biflustra  macrodon  (Fig.  334),  Porina  subsulcata  (Fig. 


Jig.  336.  —  Retepora  reticulata.     \- 

335),  and  Retepora  reticulata.    (Fig.  336.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. BRYOZOA.  83 

A  supposed  Favosites  (Fig.  337),  mentioned  in  the  prelimi- 


Fig.  337.  — Heteropora.     |. 

nary  accounts  of  the  results  of  the  "  Blake "  expeditions,  is 
probably  a  bryozoan  genus  growing  in  the  shape  of  a  mush- 
room and  allied  to  Heteropora. 


XIX. 

CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  ECHINODERMS. 
HOLOTHURIANS. 

The  order  of  Apoda  among  holothurians  has  neither  pedicels 
nor  suckers,  while  the  Pedata  have  a  highly  developed  ambula- 
cral  system  and  a  well-defined  dorsal  and  ventral  surface,  with 
pedicels  scattered  over  the  whole  body.  The  large  lobes  of  the 
Elasipoda  (the  new  order  of  deep-sea  holothurians  established  by 
Dr.  Theel)  are  perhaps  tactile.  The  ventral  surface  of  the  Ela- 
sipoda is  intended  for  locomotion,  and,  as  suggested  by  Dr. 
Theel,  they  probably  move  along  the  bottom  with  the  actinos- 
tome  wide  open,  constantly  filling  their  alimentary  canal  with 
the  ooze  stirred  up  by  the  tentacles  of  the  mouth.  The  cal- 
careous deposits  resemble  those  of  the  larval  holothurians,  and 
they  possess  other  features  showing  them  to  be  an  embryonic 
type.  The  auditory  capsules  are  often  present  in  great  num- 
bers. 

The  Elasipoda  are  strictly  abyssal  types,  no  member  of  the 
group  having  been  dredged  in  less  than  50  fathoms,  and  that 
only  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  where,  as  we  know,  deep-sea  types  are 
found  in  comparatively  shallow  water.  Of  the  large  number  of 
'^  Challenger  "  species,  only  five  are  found  within  the  500-fathom 
line,  as  many  more  inside  the  1,000-fathom  line,  and  the  others 
all  below  that  limit.  At  the  localities  where  the  "  Blake  "  was 
fortunate  enough  to  find  Elasipoda,  they  occurred  in  large  num- 
bers, and,  judging  from  the  contents  of  the  trawl,  they  appar- 
ently live  in  communities  including  several  species,  and  prefer 
soft  ooze.  The  experience  of  the  "  Challenger  "  and  of  the  Fish 
Commission  was  a  similar  one.  The  "  Challenger  "  obtained  on 
one  occasion  no  less  than  ten  species  associated  together. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. — HOLOTHURIANS.       85 


Owing  to  the  absence  of  fossil  holothurians  we  are  unable,  as 
in  the  case  of  other  echinoderms,  to  trace  the  groups  from  which 
this  peculiar  deep-sea  order  of  Elasipoda  has  been  derived. 
While  during  earlier  geological  periods  the  holothurians  un- 
doubtedly made  their  way  by  gradual  migration  from  the  shore 
into  deep  water,  their  shallow-water  progenitors  have  left  us  no 


-^x  V-^/ 


Fig.  338.  —  Psolus  tuberctdosus.     f.     (Th^el.) 

trace  of  their  existence.     The  whole  tribe  of  Elasipoda,  which 
stands  out  apparently  isolated  from  the  other  orders  of  holo- 


Fig.  339.  —  Eehinocucumis  typica.     f.     (TWel.) 

thurians,  is  found  associated  with  such 
genera  as  Psolus  (Fig.  338),  Eehinocu- 
cumis (Fig.  339),  StichopUS  (Fig.  340),  Fig.  .340.  —  Stichopns  natans.     f 

Trochostoma ^  (Fig.  341), and  Caudina,         <^°^^" * »a°iei^en) 

all  of  which  have  representatives  in  deep  water,  and  some  even 

in  very  deep  water. 

*  Trochostoma  arcticum  is  of  a  greenish  violet  color;  the  tentacles  are  much  lighter; 
and  the  skin  is  comparatively  tough. 


86 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


Of  the  Elpididse  proper,  the  family  of  the  order  first  described 
by  Theel,  no  representative  was  dredged  by  the  "  Blake  "  ;  but 


Fig.  341.  —  Trochostoma  areticum.     |.     (Koren  &  Danielssen.) 

the  Deimatidse  and   Psychropotidse  (Fig.  342)  are  both  in  the 
"  Blake "  collections.     In  the  last-named  family  there  extends 


^ 


Fig.  342.  — Psychropotes  loiigicauda     ^.     (TWel.) 

round  the  body  a  more  or  less  distinct  margin  edged  by  numer- 
ous lateral  pedicels  of  small  size,  while  in  the  Deimatidae  (Fig. 
343)  these  are  large  and  few  in  number. 


Fig.  343.  — DeimaBlakei.     |.     (Th^el.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. HOLOTHURIANS.      87 

Huge  species  of  Elasipoda  were  found  in  great  numbers  at 
several  stations  beyond  1,000  fathoms.  The  same  species  were 
also  dredged  by  the  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  and  the  drawings 
here  given  of  the  gigantic  Benthodytes  and  Euphronides  I  owe 
to  the  kindness  of  the  Fish  Commissioner,  Professor  Baird. 
Benthodytes  (Fig.  344)  is  flat  below,  convex  above,  of  a  tians- 


Fig.  344.  — Benthodytes  gigantea.     |.     (U-  S.  F.  C.) 

lucent  appearance,  but  of  considerable  consistency  when  fresh. 
It  was  most  difficult  to  preserve  these  huge  holothurians  in  al- 
cohol, and  the  specimens  sent  to  Dr.  Th^el  were  too  imperfect 
for  study.     Euphronides  (Fig.  345)  resembles   Benthodytes  in 


^—^i^ 


Fig.  34.5.  —Euphronides  cornuta.    |.     (U.  S.  F.  C.) 


general  outline,  but  in  profile  is  high,  slopes  anteriorly  and  pos- 
teriorly, and  has  a  lobed  posterior  appendage  and  a  series  of  ap- 
pendages placed  in  pairs  on  the  bevel  of  the  anterior  extremity. 
It  is  of  a  reddish  brown  color. 


88 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


Paelopatides  (Fig,  346)  and  Ankyrodeiina^   (Fig.  347)  seem 


(Th^el.) 


to  be  the  only  typical  truly  deep-sea  genera  of  the  orders  of 

Apoda  and  Pedata  collected 
by  the  "  Blake,"  not  before 
found  in  the  littoral  regions, 
while  the  other  deep-sea  spe- 
cies belonging  to  genera  found 
in  shallow  water  are  merely 
specifically  distinct  from  the 
littoral  forms,  though  undoubtedly,  like  other  marine  animals 
capable  of  living  at  extreme  depths,  they  have  become  accus- 
tomed to  their  different  conditions  of  existence  most  gradually, 
and  those  which  live  in  deep  water  have  acquired  characters  and 
habits  somewhat  distinct  from  those  dwelling  in  the  more  lit- 
toral regions,  but  which  a  close  study  alone  would  reveal. 


Fig.  347.  —  Ankyrodemia  affine. 
(Koren  &  Danielssen.) 


SEA-URCHINS. 

One  of  the  most  common  sea-urchins  is  Dorocidaris  papiJ- 
lata  (Fig.  348),  a  type  having  a  very  wide  geographical  distribu- 
tion ;  it  is  found  everywhere  in  the  Atlantic,  and  has  even  been 
dredged  in  the  Pacific ;  it  came  up  in  the  dredge  often  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  forms.  It  recalls  a  cretaceous  type  common 
both  in  Europe  and  America.  As  in  all  the  Cidaridae,  the  shape, 
proportions,  and  ornamentation  of  the  spines  vary  greatly,  and 
an  exaggerated  importance  has  frequently  been  assigned  to  chai*- 

1  Ankyroderma  affine  when  alive  is  of  a  grayish  color,  the  integument  is  thin,  and 
the  extremities  of  a  lighter  hue  than  the  body. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


SEA-URCHINS. 


89 


acters  derived  from  the  study  of  a  limited  number  of  specimens, 
both  in  the  fossil  and  recent  species.     In  the  seas  of  the  Jura 


Fig.  348.  —  Dorocidaris  papillata.     ^. 


and  of  the  chalk  the  Cidaridae  must  have  been  common  types 
of  sea-urchins.  Dorocidaris  Blakei  (Fig.  349),  obtained  by 
the  "Blake,"  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  of  the  recent  Cida- 
ridae,  from  the  variability  of  its  spines.  Before  the  "  Blake  " 
dredgings  none  were  known  among  the  recent  species  showing 
any  great  or  striking  variety  in  the  form  of  the  radioles.  With 
the  exception  of  some  of  the  species  of  the  genus  Goniocidaris, 
the  radioles  are  characterized  by  their  uniformity,  while  among 
the  fossils  of  the  family  the  variation  in  shape  and  size  of  some 
of  the  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  species  is  quite  remarkable.  If 
the  present  species  had  been  dredged  without  its  two  or  three 


90 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


fan-shaped  spines,  it  would  have  been  unhesitatingly  placed  in 
the  genus  Dorocidaris.     If  the  isolated  huge  fan-shaped  radioles 


Kg.  349.  —  Dorocidaris  Blakei.     |. 

nearly  identical  in  shape  with  those  of  the  Jurassic  Rhabdoci- 
daris  had  alone  been  collected,  few  palaeontologists  would  have 
hesitated  to  refer  them  to  that  genus. 

Another  interesting  type  of  deep-sea  Cidaridse  allied  to  ter- 
tiary forms  is  Porocidaris  (Fig.  350),  which  is  characterized  by 
the  peculiar  serrated  spines  found  near  the  mouth. 

We  first  dredged  off  Havana,  and  subsequently  in  all  parts  of 
the  Caribbean,  a  fine  species  of  Salenia  (Fig.  351),  a  genus  once 
very  common  in  the  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  seas.  The  first 
living  species  of  the  genus  (Fig.  352)  was  dredged  by  Pourtales 


Rg.  352.  —  Salenia  varispina. 


off  Double-headed  Shot  Key,  in  315  fathoms.  The  "  Blake  " 
found  it  to  be  a  characteristic  species  of  the  Caribbean  abyssal 
fauna.     This  genus  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  a  large 


Pig.  351.  —  Salenia  Pattersoni.     |. 


CUARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. SEA-URCHINS. 


91 


suranal  plate  of  an  asymmetrical  apical  system  (Fig.  353),  com- 
bined with  an  arrangement  of  tubercles  and  of  peculiar  spines 
which  connect  it  on  the  one  side  with  the  Cidaridse,  and  on  the 


Fig.  353.  —  Salenia  Pattersoni, 


other  with  the  more  recent  types  of  sea-urchins.  This  asymme- 
try is  an  embryonic  character  of  echinoderms,  due  to  the  spiral 
disposition  of  the  plates  of  the  embryo.    Traces  of  this  arrange- 


Fig.  354.  — Salenia  varispina.     ^^. 


92 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


ment  are  plainly  to  be  seen  in  the  unequal  development  in  the 
size  of  the  genital  and  ocular  plates  throughout  the  group  of 
echini.  Perhaps  we  may  trace  the  differences  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ambulacral  and  interambulacral  zones  in  the  echini 
to  such  a  primitive  differentiation.  This  embryonic  feature  runs 
back  through  the  echinoid  series  of  the  earlier  palaeozoic  times, 
and  I  am  inclined  to  look  upon  the  suranal  plate  of  Salenia  as 
recaUing  the  crinoidal  affinities  of  the  sea-urchins,  though  it  has 
not  taken  in  the  development  of  these  the  important  part  which 
it  occupies  in  the  starfishes  and  crinoids.  The  spiny  primary 
radioles  of  the  large  specimens  are  formed  from  the  gradual  wear- 
ing of  the  deHcate  filaments  (Fig.  354)  of  the  corresponding 
spines  in  younger  specimens. 

As  representatives  of  the  sculptured  echini  so  common  dur- 
ing the  tertiaries,  and 
still  prominent  in  the 
Indo-Pacific  fauna,  we 
find  the  small  Tem- 
nechinus  (Fig.  355) 
and  Trigonocidaris. 
(Fig.  356.) 

The  Arbaciadse,  a 
family  of  sea-urchins 
eminently  characteristic  of  the  American  fauna,  both  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  are  represented  in  deep  water  by  a  highly  sculp- 
tured genus,  Podocidaris  (Fig.  357), 
with  primary  spines  recalling  the  em- 
bryonic ones  of  the  littoral  species.  The 
large  spines  of  these  genera  are  used 
for  locomotion,  and  for  protection  are 
tipped  with  a  sort  of  shoe,  which  is  con- 
stantly replaced  as  it  wears.  This  shoe 
takes  an  immense  development  in  Coelo- 
pleurus  (Fig.  358),  and  grows  to  three 
or  five  times  the  length  of  the  spine  it- 
self. The  primary  spines  are  also  curved,  and  when  the  urchin 
is  in  motion  it  is  raised  far  above  the  surface,  literally  walking 
on  stilts.    The  deep-water  species  must  by  means  of  their  spines 


Fig.  355.  —  Temnechi- 
niis  maculatus.     H^. 


Fig.  356.  —  Trigonocidaris 
albida.     ?. 


Fig.  357.  —  Podocidaris 
sculpta.  ^5, 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. SEA-URCHINS.  93 

be  capable  of  very  rapid  movements,  if  they  at  all  correspond  to 
those  of  their  shallow-water  allies. 

As  it  is  brought  to  the  surface  Coelopleurus  is  most  brilliantly 
colored,  the  test  varying  from  a  rich  light  chocolate  in  the  inter- 
ambulacra  to  the  brilliant  orange  or  yellow  ambulacral  areas. 


Fig.  358.  —  Coelopleurus  floridanus 


The  primary  radioles  vary  greatly  in  color,  from  a  delicate  straw, 
often  nearly  white,  to  a  bright  carmine  or  orange ;  the  base  of 
the  spines  being  usually  colored,  and  the  shaft  more  or  less  ir- 
regularly banded. 


94  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

The  oldest  known  sea-urchins  belong  to  the  Palsechinidae,  a 
group  of  palaeozoic  echini,  having,  unlike  their  modern  conge- 
ners, more  than  two  rows  of  plates  in  each  zone  of  the  test,  and 
with  plates  overlapping  like  the  tiles  of  a  roof,  so  that  the  test 
must  have  possessed  considerable  flexibility.  These  urchins 
were  succeeded  in  mesozoic  times  by  types  with  a  still  more  flexi- 
ble test,  the  coronal  plates  forming  a  continuous  series  from  the 
mouth  to  the  apical  system  without  the  usual  sharp  distinctions 
of  actinal,  coronal,  and  apical  systems.  This  group  is  repre- 
sented in  our  seas  by  the  Echinothurise.  We  may  call  attention 
to  the  characteristic  genus  Asthenosoma,  belonging  to  the  type 

of  echini  with  flexible  test 
and  overlapping  plates 
(Fig.  359  a),  first  described 
by  Grube  from  a  single 
specimen,  and  subsequently 
collected    by   the    "  Chal- 

Fig.  359  a.  —  Asthenosoma  hystrix.  ,  „         r*       -i         i .  i 

lenger.  (irube  did  not, 
however,  recognize  the  great  importance  of  his  discovery,  and  it 
was  not  until  Thomson  and  Pourtales  dredged  these  flexible 
urchins  that  their  affinity  to  the  Echinothurise  of  the  chalk  and 
to  the  Palaechinidse  became  evident.  Traces  of  this  overlapping 
of  the  coronal  plates  can  stiU  be  detected  in  the  most  specialized 
of  the  recent  sea-urchins. 

In  one  of  the  hauls  taken  between  Cape  Maysi  and  Jamaica 
(1,200  fathoms),  we  obtained  the  first  specimens  of  Asthenosoma 
(Fig.  359)  I  had  seen  alive.  I  was  much  astonished  to  find 
them,  fully  blown  up,  hemispherical  or  globular  in  shape.  This 
was  the  shape  they  always  took  in  subsequent  hauls,  and  on 
'  several  occasions,  when  they  were  obtained  from  comparatively 
shallow  water  near  the  100-fathom  line,  they  came  up  aHve, 
and  retained  their  globular  outline.  The  alcoholic  specimens  I 
had  seen  in  the  "  Challenger "  collection  dredged  from  deep 
water  were  as  flat  as  pocket-handkerchiefs,  and  were  naturally 
regarded  as  flat  sea-urchins,  although  of  course  endowed  with 
great  mobility  of  test. 

Thomson  speaks  of  the  vermicular  movements  passing  through 
the  test  of  Asthenosoma  when  it  assumed  on  deck  what  appeared 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


SEA-URCHINS. 


95 


to  be  its  normal  form  and  attitude.     It  is  quite  dangerous  to 
handle  these  specimens  when  alive,  the  wounds  they  inflict  with 


Pig.  859.  —  Asthenosoraa  hystrix.     ^. 

their  numerous  minute  sharp  stinging  spines  producing  a  decid- 
edly unpleasant  sensation,  accompanied  by  a  slight  numbness. 
The  sting  is  fully  as  painful  as  that  of  Physalia.    These  modern 
Echinothurise  were 
subsequently  found 
very   abundant   at 
moderate      depths. 
The  "Challenger" 
dredged  a  gigantic 
species    from    this 
group,     measuring 
no   less   than   312 
mm.  in  diameter. 

The  spines  of  the 
lower  surface  are 
shod  with  a  pecu- 
liar hoof -shaped 
tip ;  on  the  test  are 
sheathed  spines  un- 
like   those    of     any  Pig.  360. -Phormosoma  placenta.     §. 


96 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


other  sea-urchins ;  they  are  probably  modified  pedicellariae. 
The  test  of  Asthenosoma  is  of  a  deep  claret-color.  Phormo- 
soma placenta,  anothev  of  the  modern  Echinothuriae  (Fig.  360), 
is  grayish,  or  sometimes  of  a  deep  brick-color  or  a  yellowish 
orange.  The  coronal  plates  of  both  zones,  although  they  appear 
at  first  glance  similar  in  structure  to  those  of  the  regular  sea- 
urchins,  yet  are  frequently  split  up  into  four  distinct  plates,  as 
in  the  palseozoic  Archeocidaris  and  the  like. 

In  a  type  recalling  the  Cidaridse  and  the  Diadematidse,  Asjn- 
dodiadema  antiUarum  (Fig.  361),  remarkable  and  interesting 
pedicellariae  are  found  scattered  over  the  whole  of  the  abac- 
tinal  part  of  the  test.     These  may  be  called  sheathed  pedicel- 
lariae.    The  shaft  con- 
sists of  a  long,  slender 
radiole,   distinctly  ar- 
ticulated,   surrounded 
by     a     huge     fleshy 
sheath,    swelling    out 
into  three  large  bags 
on    the    sides.      (Fig. 
362.)       The     sheath 


Fig.  361. — Aspidodiadema  antlllarum.     |. 


Fig.  .S62.  —  Aspidodiadema  an- 
tillarum,  magnified  pedicellaria. 


expands  at  the  extremity  into  a  three-lobed  cupuliform  tip. 
These  pedicellariae  recall  the  remarkable  sheathed  secondary 
spines  of  Asthenosoma,  and  form  an  additional  link  in  the  chain 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  —  SEA-URCHINS. 


97 


Fig.  mni.  —  Hemipedina 
cubeiisis.     ^. 


of  proof  that  pedicellarise  are  merely  modified  spines.  The  only- 
other  striking  genus  among  the  regular  urchins  is  that  of  Hemi- 
pedina (Fig.  363),  the  modern  repre- 
sentative of  a  family  once  greatly  de- 
veloped in  the  cretaceous  period. 

Although  the  line  to  the  eastward 
of  Charleston,  S.  C,  was  commenced 
off  the  very  home  of  the  Scutellse  and 
other  clypeastroids,  it  is  remarkable 
that  not  a  single  Mellita  or  Clypeaster 
was  dredged  either  on  that  line  or  the 
line  run  in  the  axis  of  the  Gulf  Stream 

as  far  as  Cape  Hatteras.  We  had  a  similar  experience  while 
dredging  near  the  100-fathom  line  when  approaching  the  South 
American  continent.  The  clypeastroids  are  evidently  shallow- 
water  types,  with  the  exception  of  Echinocyamus,  which  extends 
into  deep  water  (805  fathoms),  and  Echinarachnius,  living  speci- 
mens of  which  have  come  up  in  the  trawl  from  a  depth  of  524 
fathoms  off  George's  Bank.  An  immense  number  of  dead  tests 
of  Echinocyamus  imsillus  were  dredged  in  the  Caribbean,  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Straits  of  Florida.^ 

The  Nucleolidse,  to  which  Neolampas  (Fig.  364),  Rhyncho- 
pygus  (Fig.  365),  and  Conolampas  belong,  are  but  scantily  rep- 

?-«(.L>v.'->i»-t>,- •}•'''  .'.•vv    ,'.r/'.-.To-'.'  uaiiti^i'  -1 


Fig.  364.  —  Neolampas 
rostellata.     |. 


Fig.  365.  —  Rhynchopygus 
caribsearum.     2-2^ 


resented  in  the  echinid  fauna  of  to-day.     They  were  once  among 
the  most  numerous  of  the  urchins,  and  flourished   especially 

^  It  is  interesting  to  note,  in  connection  opneustes,  of  Trigonocidaris,  of  Temne- 

with  this,  that  dead  tests  of  species  of  chinus,  of  Salenia,  and  of  Cidaris,  were 

Clypeaster,  of  Echinanthus,  of   Encope,  also  frequently  dredged,  and  sometimes 

of  Schizaster,  of  Macropneustes,  of  Tox-  in   considerable    numbers.      This  has  an 


98 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


during  the  cretaceous  and  Jurassic  periods.  They  are,  with  the 
Pourtalesise,  the  forerunners  of  the  true  spatangoids.  They  have 
many  features  in  common  with  the  flat  clypeastroids,  such  as 
their  tuberculation,  the  character  of  their  pedicellariae  and 
spines,  and  the  structure  of  the  apical  system  (Fig.  366),  while 
the  structure  of  the  anal  system  and  the  general  facies  of  the 
test  rather  allies  them  to  the  true  spatan- 
goids. But  neither  the  Nucleolidae  nor  the 
Pourtalesise  are  possessed  of  fascioles,  an 
eminently  spatangoid  structure.  These 
specialized  bands  of  minute  spines  are 
slightly  developed  in  some  of  the  creta- 
ceous genera,  and  their  rudimentary  form 
exists  to-day  in  such  types  as  Hemiaster. 
Their  exact  function  is  not  yet  known. 
They  take  their  greatest  developments  in 
such  modern  genera  as  Schizaster.  Some 
light  has  been  thrown  on  their  development  by  the  discovery 
of  a  deep-sea  species  of  Macropneustes,  which  shows  a  gradual 
transition  between  the  tuberculation  of  the  test  (Fig.  367)  and 
specialized  areas  corresponding  to  fascioles. 


Fig.  366.  —  Neolampas 
rostellata,  magnified. 


Fig.  367-  —  Macropneustes  spatangoides. 


important  bearing  as  indicating  the  spe- 
cies which  are  likely  hereafter  to  be  pre- 
served as  fossils,  and  shows  us  how  diffi- 
cult it  may  become,  even  when  we  have 
such  an  abundant  and  characteristic  echi- 
nid  fauna  as  that  of  the  West  Indies,  to 
recoustruct  it  from  the  future  fossils. 
We  may  also  notice  that  the  genera  of 
which  we  so  frequently  find  the  dead  tests 
are  the  same  which  have  been  known  as 


characteristic  of  the  West  Indies  since 
the  earliest  tertiary.  We  cannot  expect 
to  find  represented  among  the  fossils  the 
Echinothuriae,  Pourtalesise,  and  many  of 
the  Eehinidte,  since  after  death  they  read- 
ily fall  to  pieces,  and  may  then  be  dis- 
solved, like  many  species  of  mollusks,  at 
great  depth,  before  they  become  protected 
by  a  covering  of  deep-sea  ooze. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  —  SEA-URCHINS. 


99 


The  genus  Rhynchopygus  appeared  at  the  time  of  the  chalk, 
and  is  an  interesting  West  Indian  type.  It  is  found  on  both 
sides  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  is  characteristic  of  a  period 
when  there  was  a  direct  connection  between  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

The  allied  Neolampas  has  no  fossil  representative.  The  allies 
of  Conolampas  date  back  to  the  cretaceous  period.  Conolamjjos 
Sigsbei  (Fig.  368)  is  by  far  the  most  striking  sea-urchin  I  have 
seen.  I  shall  always  remember  the  particular  haul,  on  the  edge 
of  the  Yucatan  Bank,  when  the  dredge  came  up  containing  half 


X 


Fig.  808.  — Conolampas  Sigsbei.     \. 

a  dozen  of  these  huge  brilliant  lemon-colored  echini.  This  mag- 
nificent species  was  originally  referred  to  the  fossil  genus  Cono- 
clypus ;  but  Zittel  having  discovered  that  some  species  of  this 
genus  possessed  teeth,  De  Loriol  made  an  examination  of  the 
genus,  and  found  that  it  really  contained  two  generic  types,  one 
edentate,  the  other  provided  with  teeth.  These  discoveries  led 
me  to  make  a  renewed  examination  of  Conoclypus  Sigsbei. 
On  opening  a  specimen  I  found  that  it  was  edentate.  This 
structural  feature  is  most  interesting,  as  it  seems  to  show  us  the 
direct  passage,  as  it  were,  between  the  edentate  echini  and  those 
provided  with  teeth. 

Another  typical  genus  from  the  chalk  represented  among  the 


100 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


deep-water  spatangoids  is  Hemiaster  (Figs.  369,  370),  a  small 
globular  genus  representing  the  earlier  forms  of  spatangoids 


Fig^.  369.  —  Hemiaster  zonatiis.     ^.  Fig.  370.  —  Hemiaster  expergitus.    ?.    (Lov^n.) 

characterized  by  a  simple  fasciole.     Others  belonging  to  the  dis- 
tinctly cretaceous  family  of  Ananchytidae  are  the  huge  violet  or 


Fig.  371.  —  Paleopneustes  hystrix.     |. 

deep  claret-colored  *  Paleopneustes,  characterized  by  their  emi- 
nently spatangoid  mouth,  by 
their  simple  ambulacral  system 
and  somewhat  clypeastroid  or 
even  echinidal  spines,  as  in 
Paleopneustes  hystrix  (Fig. 
371),  in  which  the  spines  re- 
semble  more  those  of   a  true 

Fiff .  372.  —  Palseotropus  Josephinae.    ? .  tti     i    •  ■  i  ,  •  t 

^  J^chinus  than  a  spatangoid. 
Other  typical  modern  Ananchytidse  are  the  West  Indian  Palaeo- 
brissus  and  Palseotropus.     (Fig.  372.) 

^  The  colors  of  the  deep-sea  echini  alcohol  in  which  they  jvere  placed.  The 
and  other  echinoderms  seem  to  be  spe-  color  of  the  littoral  or  shallow-water  spe- 
cially fugitive,  and  greatly  discolored  the     cies  is  far  more  permanent. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. SEA-URCHINS. 


101 


Perhaps  the  most  interesting  group  of  sea-urchins  discovered 
by  the  late  deep-sea  explorations  are  the  Pourtalesiae.  The  first 
Pourtalesia  was  dredged  by  Pourtales  in  the  Straits  of  Florida, 
—  a  single  specimen  only  (Fig.  373),  but  sufficiently  perfect  to 
enable  me  to  make  an  examination  of  this  extraordinary  type,  so 
different  at  first  glance  from  any  sea-urchin  previously  known. 


Fig.  373. 


Pourtalesia  rairanda. 


Fig.  374. 


The  study  of  that  species,  Pourtalesia  miranda  (Fig.  374), 
showed  affinities  to  a  singular  family  of  urchins  described  from 
the  chalk,  as  well  as  extended  relationship  to  types  considered  as 
long  extinct.  The  Ananchytidse,  to  which  the  Pourtalesiae  are 
allied,  are  perhaps  the  most  typical  cretaceous  sea-urchins. 
They  all  have  large  coronal  plates,  recalling  the  Echini,  with  a 
disconnected  apical  system  characteristic  of  many  cainozoic  spa- 
tangoids  ;  they  have  a  sunken  anal  system,  some  of  them  a  most 
remarkable  anal  beak,  and  a  very  striking  pouch,  in  which  the 
mouth  is  placed.     They  possess  rudimentary  fascioles,  and  their 


Fig.  375.  —  Urechinus  naresianus 


Fig.  376.—  Profile  of  Fig.  37.5. 


tuberculation  allies  them  to  the  clypeastroids.  Another  species 
of  the  same  group,  which  has  a  wide  geographical  distribution, 
is  Urechinus  naresianus  (Figs.  375,  376),  which  seems  to  be  as 
common  in  some  parts  of  the  Pacific  as  in  the  Atlantic. 


102 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


STARFISHES/ 

The  predominant  species  of  starfishes  belong  to  the  Gonias- 
teridse  and  Archasteridae,  families  which  seem  thus  far  to  have 
flourished  principally  during  the  chalk.  Not  only  is  the  number 
of  species  belonging  to  these  families  very  great,  but  also  the 
number  of  specimens  brought  up  by  the  dredge.  For  instance, 
Archaster  mirahilis  (Fig.   386)  came  up  by  hundreds ;  it  is 


Fig.  377. —  Pentagonaster  temalis.     ^.     (Perrier.) 

a  most  variable  species,  extending  from  5Q  fathoms  to  a  depth 
of  1,920  fathoms.  The  species  of  Archaster  are  common  in  all 
depths  of  the  Atlantic,  and  their  number  is  great.     Among  the 

^  The  account  of   the    Starfishes   col-     lished   in   the    "Nouvelles    Archives   du 
leeted  by  the  "  Blake  "  is  compiled  from     Museum." 
the  Report   of   Professor   Perrier,  pub- 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


STARFISUES. 


103 


novelties  described  by  Perrier,  the  species  of  Goniopecten  reveal 
many  points  of  similarity  in  the  structure  of  Pentagonaster  (Fig. 
377),  Archaster  (Fig.  378),  and  Astropecten,  which  were  all 
supposed  to  be  radically  distinct.  The 
genus  Anthenoides  (Fig.  379)  is  interme- 
diate between  Anthenea,  with  large  pedi- 
cellarise,  and  Pentagonaster,  with  smaller 
ones  and  granules.  Ctenaster  (Fig.  380), 
on  the  other  hand,  recalls  a  gigantic  Cte- 
nodiscus  without  ventral  scales ;  its  mar- 
ginal plates  ally  it  to  the  Goniasteridse,  and 
the  structure  of  its  dorsal  skeleton  to  such 
genera  as  Solaster  and  Acanthaster.  Ra- 
diaster  (Fig.  381),  a  large  five -armed  starfish,  with  bunches 
of  spines  like  Solaster  endeca,  of  which  it  possesses  the  mar- 


Fig.  378.  —  Archaster  pul- 
cher.     \.     (Perrier.) 


Pig.  .379.  —  Anthenoides  Peircei.     jj.     (Perrier.) 


104 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


ginal  plates,  its  ventral  plates  allying  it  to  the  Asterinse,  finds 
its  place  between  it  and  the  Astropectinidae. 


'4^ 


Fig.  380.  —  Ctenaster  spectabilis.    |.     (Perrier.) 

In  regard  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  starfishes,  it  was 
interesting  to  find  in  the  deep  waters  of  the  Caribbean  district 
the  Northern  Atlantic  genera  Cribrella,  Solaster,  Pedicellaster, 
and  Brisinga. 


Fig.  381.  —  Radiaster  elegans.     |.     (Perrier.' 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. STARFISHES. 


105 


Fig.  382.  —  Zoroaster  Aekleyi.     |.     (Perrier.) 


In  1874,  Sir  Wy  ville  Thomson  described  Zoroaster,  discovered 
by  the  "  Challenger,"  —  a 
genus  remarkable  for  the 
thickness  and  regularity  of 
the  skeleton.  The  "  Blake  " 
dredged  two  interesting 
species  of  this  genus ;  the 
one,  Zoroaster  Sigsheei, 
with  large  ossicles  of  the 
disk  and  most  distinct 
arms ;  the  other,  on  the 
contrary,  Zoroaster  Aek- 
leyi (Fig.  382),  with  arms 
and  disk  united,  giving  it 
an  external  resemblance  to 
Chaetaster,  the  plates  of 
the  actinal  surface  being 
crowded  with  small  flat- 
tened spines,  recalling 
Luidia,  the  tentacles  in  four  rows  at  the  base  and  two  rows 
at  the  tip  ending  in  a  minute  disk. 

Hymenodiscus  Agassizii  (Fig.  383)  belongs  to  an  interme- 
diate type  far  more  pronounced  even  than  Brisinga.  It  recalls 
the  ophiurans  by  its  round  disk,  distinctly  separated  from  the 
arms,  which  are  long,  slender,  and  mobile,  furnished  with  a 
lateral  row  of  spines,  as  in  the  ophiurans,  which  may  serve  as 
organs  of  locomotion.  But  there  are  twelve  arms  in  these  star- 
fishes, while  there  are  not  more  than  six,  or  sometimes  eight,  in 
ophiurans.  The  disk  is  membranous  (Fig.  384),  with  a  circle 
of  ossicles  formed  from  the  first  joint  of  the  arms.  The  skele- 
ton of  the  arms  is  most  simple,  consisting  of  four  longitudinal 
series  of  pieces ;  each  piece  carries  a  long  lateral  spine  (Fig. 
385),  covered  by  a  smooth  sheath  swollen  at  the  extremity,  and 
a  cluster  of  pedicellarise  such  as  characterize  the  starfishes.  The 
true  starfish  ambulacral  pieces  are  wanting  in  Hymenodiscus. 
The  dorsal  skeleton  of  Brisinga  may  be  considered  as  only  a 
shield  of  the  genital  glands,  which  are  similar  in  their  structure, 
as  is  the  digestive  cavity,  to  the  same  organs  of  the  ophiurans, 


106 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


while  the  structure  of  the  ambulacral  furrow  approaches  that 
of   the    Comatulae.      Hymenodiscus   and   Brisinga    thus   form 


Pig.  383. — Hymenodiscus  Agassizii.     l^.     (Perrier.) 

among  starfishes  a  very  peculiar  family,  marked  by  most  excep- 
tional characters.     The  study  of  Hymenodiscus,  closely  allied 


Fig.  384.     ?.  Pig.  385.      Magnified  spine. 

Hymenodiscus  Agassizii.     (Perrier.) 

to  the  northern  Brisinga,  has  had  an  important  bearing  on  the 
morphology  of  the  starfish  skeleton. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


STARFISHES. 


107 


There  exists  in  Ar chaster  mirabilis  (Fig.  386)  a  remark- 
able sort  of  pedicellarise, 
consisting  o£  two  ossicles 
placed  face  to  face  like  the 
hooks  of  a  bracket,  each 
carrying  a  comb  of  spines 
falling  one  towards  the 
other  and  forming  a  very 
complicated  organ  of  pre- 
hension. 

There  seems  to  be  no 
doubt  that  the  starfish 
fauna  becomes  less  and  less 
varied  as  the  depth  in- 
creases, the  maximum  de- 
velopment in  individuals 
being  found  at  a  depth  of 
from  100  to  250  fathoms. 
The  number  of  species 
does  not  seem  to  diminish 
so  rapidly  as  the  number 
of  individuals,  nor  in  pro- 
portion to  the  variation  of 
the  nature  of  the  bottom. 
Thus  in  depths  of  less  than  100  fathoms  it  required  2.7  hauls 
of  the  dredge  to  bring  up  one  species,  15  species  and  150  speci- 
mens being  collected  in  41  hauls.  Between  100  and  200  fath- 
oms, 21  species  and  144  specimens  being  obtained,  the  coeffi- 
cient was  3.6.  From  200  to  300  fathoms  the  coefficient  was 
3.15,  with  13  species  and  66  individuals.  From  300  to  400  fath- 
oms only  12  individuals  were  dredged,  belonging  to  9  species, 
the  coefficient  being  3.9.  Between  400  and  500  fathoms  the 
coefficient  was  4.6.  Between  500  and  600  fathoms  the  coeffi- 
cient had  become  13.  We  made  15  hauls  between  800  and  900 
fathoms,  but  obtained  only  3  species  and  3  individuals,  although 
at  a  depth  of  1,900  to  2,000  fathoms,  4  hauls  gave  us  7  speci- 
mens of  4  species. 

Of  course  thie  method  of  carrying  on  dredgings  affects  the 


Fig.  386.  —  Archaster  rairabilis.  ^.    (Perrier.) 


108 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


results  to  a  certain  extent.    The  greater  length  of  time  required 
for  dredging  in  considerable  depth  and  the  state  of  the  weather 


Fig.  8S7.  —  Brisingu  coronata.     ^.     (Sars.) 

while  at  specially  favorable  localities    naturally  influence  the 
success  in  collecting. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. OPHIURANS.  109 

North  of  Cape  Hatteras  the  species  of  starfish  procured  by  the 
"  Blake  "  are  identical  with  those  described  by  Professor  Verrill 
from  the  dredgings  of  the  United  States  Fish  Commission. 

I  would  only  mention  here,  as  the  most  interesting  of  the 
species  we  found,  ten-armed  specimens  of  Brisinya  coronata. 
(Fig.  387.)  This  species  forms  the  subject  of  an  elaborate 
paper  by  the  younger  Sars,  and  I  have  here  reproduced  one  of 
his  figures. 

OPHIURANS.^ 

Among  Echinoderms  there  are  two  families,  the  brittle-stars, 
or  Ophiuridae,  and  the  branching-stars,  or  Astrophytidae,  which 
are  distinguished  by  a  peculiar  axis  in  the  arms,  made  up  of 
articulated  bones  somewhat  like  vertebrae.     The  disk  or  body  is 


Fig.  389.  —  Ophiocreas  spinulosus.     ^, 

usually  distinctly  set  off  from  the  arms.  These  last  contain  no 
prolongation  of  the  central  digestive  cavity,  as  they  do  in  the 
starfishes  proper. 

'  Mr.  Lymaii  has  prepared  the  account  of  the  ophiurans. 


110  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

Besides  the  peculiarity  of  branching  arms  {Astrophyton  coe- 
dlia,  Fig.  388)  which  distinguishes  some  of  the  genera,  the  As- 
trophytidae  have  characteristic  joints  in  the  arm-axis,  which  sepa- 
rate them  from  the  Ophiuridee.  They  are  also  usually  covered, 
not  by  conspicuous  plates  of  lime  carbonate,  but  by  a  leathery 
skin  (Ophiocreas  spinulosus,  Fig.  389).  The  typical  Ophiu- 
ridse  have  a  well-marked  central  disk  covered  with  plates  or 
scales,  and  from  it  radiate  five  arms  encased  in  four  longitudinal 
rows  of  plates  (Ophiozona  nivea,  Fig.  390).     The  side  arm- 


Fig.  390. 


plates  bear  spines,  which  may  lie  close  along  the  arm  {Ophio- 
phyllum  petilum,  Fig.  391),  or  stand  out  from  it  at  a  strong 


Kg-  391.  —  Ophiophyllam  petilnin. 


angle  (Ophiocamax  hysirix,  Fig.  392).      There  is  an  almost 
endless  variety  in  the  shape,  consistency,  number,  and  size  of 


Fig.  388.  —  Astrophytou  coecilia.     ^. 


Fig.  392.  —  Ophiocamax  hystriz.     i. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  OPHIURANS. 


Ill 


the  plates,  scales,  spines,  and  granules  ( Op AiopcepaZe  Goesiana, 
Fig.    393 ;    OjyJiiura  Ela2)S,  Fig.   394 ;    Ophioconis  rniliaria. 


Fig,  393.  — Ophiopsepale  Groesiana.     ^. 

Fig.  395).     So  there  may  be  every  diversity  of  general  form, 
from  the  smooth  simple  Ophiomusium  planum  (Fig.  396)  to 


Fig.  304.  — OphiuraElaps.     l^f^. 

the  highly  complex  Ophiomyces  frutectosus.  (Fig.  397.)  No 
conditions  could  well  be  more  favorable  to  ophiurans  than  those 
of  the  West  Indian  waters.    A  tropical  sun  gives  to  the  shallows 


112 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


a  temperature  of  over  80°  Fahr.,  which  decreases  gradually  with 
the  depth,  till,  between  600  and  700  fathoms,  it  has  fallen  to 


Fig.  305.  —  Ophioconis  miliaria.    |. 

39i°.     The  American  continents  on  one  side,  and  the  Antilles 


Fig.  396.  —  Ophiomnsiuin  plannm.     ^^. 

on  the  other,  furnish  those  great  land  masses  the  neighborhood 
of  which  seems  essential  to  rich  and  varied  marine  life.     Their 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  OPHIURANS.  113 

wash  increases  the  already  abundant  supply  of  lime,  a  substance 
that  forms  nearly  the  entire  weight  of  some  species  ( Ojjhiomaa- 


Pig.  397.  —  Ophioniyces  f rutectosiis. 


lus  secimdus,  Fig.  398).     These  conditions  naturally  give  rise 
to  much  variety  in  form,  and  to  a  great  abundance  of  individu- 


Fig.  ;508.  —  Ophiomastus  secundus.     |. 

als.  The  nine  species  mentioned  by  Miiller  and  Troschel,  in 
1842,  as  belonging  to  this  area,  have  increased  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty-five,  which  are  distributed  at  various  depths.  On  the 
flats  and  reefs,  near  islands  and  keys,  may  be  found  colonies  of 
Ophiothrix,  blue,  gi'een,  or  red,  with  their  translucent  thorny  arm- 
spines,  and  the  humble  Ophiactis  swarming  on  great  sponges ; 
while  here  and  there  a  yellow  or  vermilion  star  marks  the  soft 
02:)hiomyxa  Jiaccida.  To  the  brown  gorgonians  clings  the  large 
Ophiocoma,  similar  in  color ;  and  sometimes  a  Medusa-head, 
whose  branching  arms  excited  the  wonder  of  old  Rondelet, 
twines  about  the  thicker  stems.  These  and  their  companions, 
living  in  a  strong  light,  and  in  warm  shallow  water,  present 
brilliant  and  well-marked  colors.  Nor  are  those  that  inhabit  the 
dark  and  cold  depths  of  the  ocean  always  pale ;  on  the  contrary, 
many  are  of  a  bright  orange  or  red.  They  are  peculiar,  how- 
ever, in  that  their  colors  generally  fade  in  alcohol ;  and  in  an 
alcoholic  collection  the  shallow  species  may  readily  be  distin- 
guished by  their  brighter  coloration. 


114 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


Like  other  marine  animals,  ophiurans  are  distributed  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  and  temperature  of  the  water.  About  one  half 
of  the  known  species  are  confined  to  the  zone  between  low-water 
mark  and  30  fathoms.  These  include  the  Medusa-heads  ( Astro- 
phyton).  But  not  less  than  one  tenth  of  the  known  living 
forms  are  found  entirely  below  1,000  fathoms,  and  of  these  sev- 
eral, such  as  Ophiomusium,  Lynianl ,^  Ophiocreas  spimdosiis,  and 
Ophiocamax  hystrix,  live  in  great  colonies,  just  as  some  of  the 


Fig.  399.  —  Sig^beia  murrhina.     i 

shallow-water  species  do.  They  are  found  in  various  situations. 
The  localization  of  some  of  these  is  very  marked.  The  stiff- 
armed  Ophiomusium  of  deep  water,  with  their  swollen  tubercu- 
lous plates,  naturally  lie  on  the  bottom,  while  other  species  with 
supple  or  prehensile  arms,  such   as  Sigsbeia  (Fig.  399)  and  As- 

1  All  the  way  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  the  extremity  of  George's  Bank,  Ophiomu- 
sium Lymani  was  quite  common  in  deep  water. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


OPmURANS. 


115 


trocnida  (Fig.  400),  cling  to  corals,  gorgonians,  and  bryozoans. 
One  species,  Oj^hiomilra  valida,  is  often  found  twined  round 
the  stalk  of  a   sea-lily  (Pentacrinus).     OfP  the  mouth  of   the 


Fig.  400.  —  Astrocnida  isidis.     \. 

Mississippi  we  brought  up  from  100  fathoms  a  number  of  Ophio- 
lipus  Agassizii  (Fig.  401),  which  must  live  buried  in  the  mud 


Fig.  401. 


brought  down  by  the  river.  Worthy  of  spe- 
cial notice  is  a  small  soft  ophiuran  which 
came  up  in  the  very  last  cast  made  by  the 
"  Blake  "  off  Barbados.  This  seemed  to 
have  little  tufts  resembling  bunches  of  hy- 
droids  on  the  sides  of  the  arms  (Fig.  402) : 


116  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

further  examination  showed  these  tufts  to  be  bunches  of  minute 
spines  enclosed  each  in  a  thick  skin  bag,  resembHng  long- 
stemmed  parasols  with 
small  shades.  This  struc- 
ture differs  radically  from 
that  of  the  spines  of  all 
other  ophiurans  hitherto 
„.    ,,,.,     .  „.     „,.,    ,^    known  where   there  is  no 

Fig.  402.     \.  Fig.  408.   -6  0. 

Ophioheius  umbeUa.  (Lyman.)  departure  from  the  single 

row  of  articulated  spines. 
A  bunch  of  these  umbrella-shaped  spines  of  Oj)hiohelus  wn- 
bella  is  given  in  Fig.  403. 

CRINOIDS.^ 

The  stalked  crinoids  are  among  the  most  interesting  of  the 
deep-sea  animals.  Their  palaeontological  relations  run  back  in 
the  case  of  the  Pentacrinoidea  and  the  Apiocrinidse  (Rhizocrinus) 
to  the  Jurassic  period ;  while  the  relationship  of  Holopus  may 
probably  extend  to  the  silurian  (Edriocrinus). 

The  Pentacrinidae,  of  which  four  species  were  known  from 
the  Caribbean  district,  are  characterized  by  the  verticillate  ar- 
rangement of  the  cirri  along  the  whole  length  of  the  stem, 
while  in  the  Bourgueticrini  the  whole  stem  even  may  be  free  of 
cirri.  Recent  species  of  Pentacrinidse  have  been  found  both  in 
the  Pacific  and  Atlantic,  and  they  are  common  at  depths  of  less 
than  100  fathoms.  The  species  of  the  genus  Metacrinus  (Fig. 
404)  replace  in  the  Pacific,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  Atlantic  Pen- 
tacrini.  Our  first  accurate  knowledge  of  the  type  dates  from 
Miller,  who  compared  the  structure  of  the  fossil  species  with 
that  of  both  Pentacrinus  asterius  (Fig.  405)  and  the  free  Coma- 
tulse.  This  relationship  was  subsequently  most  satisfactorily 
proved  by  J.  V.  Thomson,  who  in  1836  discovered  the  penta- 
crinoid  stage  of  a  species  of  Comatula.     (Fig.  406.) 

There  seems  to  be  no  special  order  in  the  division  of  the  sec- 
ondary and  tertiary  arms  of  the  Pentacrinidae,  though  the  dif- 

^  The  account  here  given  of  the  Cri-     collections    of    the    "  Challenger  "    and 
noids   is   drawn  up  from    the    Reports     "Blake"  expeditions, 
made  by  Dr.  P.    H.  Carpenter  on  the 


Fig.  405.  —  Pentacrinus  aaterius.     ^.     (Carpenter.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CRINOIDS. 


117 


Pig.  404. — Metacrinus  aug^Iatus.     ^.     (Carpenter.) 


ferences  existing  between  the  liassic  and 
the  modern  Pentacriuidse  led  the  Austins 
to  establish  the  genus  Extracrinus  for  a 
fossil  species  which  seems  to  have  been 
gregarious,  and  of  which  Queenstedt  has 
figured  a  magnificent  slab,  some  of  the 
specimens  with  a  stem  nearly  sixty  feet 
long.  The  stems  were  often  twisted  into 
a  solid,  ropelike  mass,  and  are  so  entan- 
gled on  the  slab  that  it  is  difficult  to 
make  out  the  individual  stems.  A  sim- 
ilar entangling  also  occurred  among  the 
specimens  dredged  by  the  "  Blake,"  and 
it  was  often  very  difficult  to  separate  speci- 


Fig.  406.  —  Pentacrinus 
stage  of  Actinometra 
meridionalis,  magni- 
fied. 


118 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


V  »  » 

mi', 


mens  the  cirri  of  which  had  become  attached  to  adjoining  stems. 
It  is  possible  that  they  may  live  gregariously,  more  or  less  united 
either  by  the  twisting  of  the  stems  or  the  grappling  of  the  cirri, 
and  be  only  loosely  attached  to  the  ooze  on  which  they,  live,  or 
anchored  more  securely  by  the  terminal  whorl  to  some  project- 
ing piece  of  rock  or  gorgonia  stem. 

Crinoids  both  stalked  and  free  live  in  colonies.     Comatulse 

are  most  abundant  in  certain  local- 
ities. Antedon  Sarsii  was  brougrht 
up  in  thousands  by  the  "  Blake." 
The  U.  S.  Fish  Commission  and 
the  "  Challenger  "  have  had  a  sim- 
ilar experience  with  different  spe- 
cies of  Comatulae.  On  one  occa- 
sion, off  Sand  Key,  we  must  have 
passed  over  a  field  of  Rhizocrinus 
with  the  dredge,  judging  from  the 
number  of  stems  and  heads  of  all 
sizes  it  contained.  The  oldest  species 
known,  Pentacrinus  asterius  (Fig. 
405),  is  marked  by  its  greatly  mul- 
tiplied large  and  strong  arms,  while 
in  P.  decorus  (Fig.  407)  the  num- 
ber is  greatiy  reduced.  We  know 
but  little  of  the  young  of  Pentacri- 
nus. The  youngest  specimens 
dredged  by  the  "  Blake,"  and  fig- 
ured by  Carpenter  (Fig.  408),  show 
the  great  relative  height  of  the  stem 
joint  as  a  characteristic  feature  of 
young  specimens.  The  stems  of 
Pentacrinus  asterius  and  P.  decorus  are  longrer  than  those  of 
the  other  species  of  the  genus.  P.  Miilleri  (Fig.  409)  was  dis- 
covered by  Oersted,  and  in  1865  Dr.  LUtken  gave  a  detailed 
account  of  the  West  Indian  Pentacrinidae ;  the  many  speci- 
mens of  Pentacrinus  dredged  by  the  "  Blake  "  were  originally 
identified  with  it,  but,  as  has  been  clearly  shown  by  Carpenter, 
they  all   belong   to  P.  decorus.      Both  P.  Miilleri   and  P. 


Fig.  408.  —  Pentacrinus  decorus. 
(Carpenter.) 


Fig.  407. — Pentacrinus  decorus.     5.     (Carpenter.) 


Fig.  410.  —  Pentacrinus  Blakei.     j.     (Carpenter.) 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEBP-SEA    TYPES.  CRINOIDS. 

decorus  seem  most  vari- 
able species  of  a  very 
variable  genus.  Off  St. 
Vincent  the  specimens 
brought  u  p  evidently 
lived  on  a  rocky  bot- 
tom, and  there  the  spe- 
cimens were  undoubt- 
edly anchored  by  the 
terminal  cirri,  their 
stems  having  become 
fractured,  as  has  been 
suggested  by  Thomson, 
at  the  nodes.  Thus  they 
continued  to  lead  a  semi- 
free  existence,  the  lowest 
nodal  joint  becoming 
smooth  and  rounded, 
showing  that  the  ani- 
mal had  been  free  for 
some  time,  the  nodal  ter- 
minal joint  being  sur- 
rounded by  its  whorl  of 
cirri,  which  curved  down- 
ward like  a  grappling- 
iron,^  so  that  the  animal 
must  have  been  able  to 
change  its  position  at 
pleasure  by  swimming 
with  its  arms,  like  Coma- 
tulae.  Another  species  of 
Pentacrinus  obtained  has 
been  named  P.  Blakei 
by  Dr.  Carpenter.  (Fig. 
410.)     It  has  a  slender, 

^  In  regard  to  the  movements  of  Pen- 
tacrinus the  following  extract  from  a  let- 
ter of  Lieut.-Commander  C.  D.  Sigsbee 
will  be  of  interest  i  — 


119 


Fig.  409.  — Pentacrinus  Miilleri.     |.     (Carpenter. ) 


"  On  the  1st  of  April  we  put  to  sea 
again  [from  Havana]  ;  we  steamed  about 
one  and  a  half  miles  from  the  Morro 
(east),  and  at  the  third  haul,  in  177  fath- 


120  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

smootli  stem,  with  a  rounded  pentagonal  outline  ;  it  is  appa- 
rently not  common,  having  been  dredged  by  the  "  Blake  "  only 
at  four  localities. 

Rhizocrinus  (Fig.  411)  has  a  stem  composed  of  dice-box 
shaped  joints,  terminating  in  a  spreading  root  or  a  number  of 
branching  radicular  cirri,  not  arranged  in  definite  whorls,  with 
a  high  calyx.  It  was  first  named  by  M.  Sars,  who  afterwards 
described  it,  in  1868,  as  belonging  to  the  Apiocrinidse.  But 
before  the  appearance  of  Sars's  memoir,  this  interesting  crinoid 
had  been  rediscovered  by  Pourtales,  and  stated  by  him  to  belong 
undoubtedly  to  the  genus  Bourgueticrinus  of  D'Orbigny,  and 
he  gave  it  the  provisional  name  of  B.  ITotessieri,  thinking  it 
might  prove  identical  with  a  crinoid  of  that  name  of  which 
fragments  had  been  found  in  the  recent  limestones  of  Guade- 
loupe. Pourtales  was  the  first  to  make  out  accurately  the  com- 
position of  the  cup,  and  he  of  course  also  recognized  its  identity 
with  the  Rhizocrinus  of  Sars's  memoir,  M.  lofotensls.  Rhizo- 
crinus has  been  dredged  by  the  Porcupine,  the  Hassler,    the 

oms,  from  disintegrated  coral  rock  bot-  and  use  them  as  hooks  to  catch  hold  of 
torn,  up  came  six  beautiful  'sea  lilies.'  neighboring  objects;  and,  on  account  of 
Some  of  them  came  up  on  the  tangles,  their  sharp  extremities,  the  cirri  are  well 
some  on  the  dredge.  They  were  as  brit-  adapted  to  retain  their  hold.  The  stem 
tie  as  glass.  The  heads  soon  curled  over,  itself  passes  slowly  from  a  rigid  vertical 
and  showed  a  decided  disposition  to  drop  attitude  to  a  curved  or  even  drooping  po- 
off.  At  a  haul  made  soon  after  we  got  sition.  We  did  not  bring  up  a  single 
more,  and,  being  afraid  to  put  so  many  of  specimen  that  showed  the  mode  of  attach- 
them  in  the  tank  together,  1  tried  to  ment  of  the  stem.  Several  naturalists, 
delude  the  animals  into  the  idea  that  on  the  evidence  of  large  slabs  oontaiu- 
they  were  in  their  native  temperatures  ing  fossil  Pentacrini,  where  no  basal  at- 
by  putting  them  into  ice -water.  This  tachment  could  be  seen,  have  come  to 
worked  well,  although  some  of  them  be-  the  conclusion  that  Pentacrini  might 
came  exasperated  and  shed  some  of  their  be  free,  attaching  themselves  tempora- 
arms.  They  lived  in  the  ice-water  for  rily  by  the  cirri  of  the  stem,  much  as 
two  hours,  until  I  transferred  them  to  Comatulse  do.  I  am  informed,  however, 
the  tank.  They  moved  their  arms  one  by  Captain  E.  Cole,  of  the  telegraph 
at  a  time.  Some  of  the  lilies  were  white,  steamer  "  Investigator,"  that  he  has  fre- 
some  purple,  some  yellow  ;  the  last  was  quently  brought  up  the  West  Indian  tel- 
the  color  of  the  smaller  and  more  deli-  egraph  cable  with  Pentacrini  attached, 
cate  ones."  and  that  they  are  fixed,  the  basal  extrem- 
I  have  nothing  to  add  to  the  general  ity  of  the  stem  spreading  slightly,  some- 
description  of  their  movements  given  by  what  after  the  manner  of  Holopus,  so 
Sigsbee,  with  the  exception  of  their  use  that  it  requires  considerable  strength  to 
of  the  cirri  placed  along  the  stem.  These  detach  them, 
they  move  more  rapidly  than  the  arms, 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CRINOIDS. 


121 


Challenger,    the  Blake,   the  Talisman,  and  by  the  U.  S.  Fish 
Commission  ;    it  has  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution,  hav- 


Fig.  411.  —  Rhizocrinus  lofo- 
tensis.    |.  (Sars  &  Carpenter.) 


Pig.  412.  —  Rhizocrinus  Rawsoni.    ^.    (Carpenter.) 

ing  been  found  as  far  north  as  the 
Lofoten,  and  as  far  south  as  35°  south 
latitude.  It  is  very  common  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Caribbean,  and 
along  the  east  coast  of  the  United 
States.  It  is  of  a  brownish-chestnut 
color  when  alive,  varying  from  that 
to  a  dirty  white.  M.  Rawsoni,  a 
second  species  (Fig.  412),  was  first 
dredged  by  the. "  Porcupine  "  off  Cape 
Clear,  but  the  specimens  were  con- 
sidered a  variety  of  the  other  species, 


122  THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE." 

until  attention  was  again  called  to  it  by  Pourtales  in  1871, 
and  he  showed  the  stout-stemmed  specimens  collected  by  the 
"  Hassler  "  off  Barbados  to  be  of  a  species  distinct  from  the 
one  previously  described. 

The  predecessors  of  Rhizocrinus  were  well  represented  in  the 
lower  tertiary,  and  go  back  to  the  cretaceous,  where  its  ally, 
Bourgueticrinus,  was  very  abundant. 

In  Rhizocrinus,  spreading  rootlets  extend  below  the  regular 
joints.  By  expansion  at  the  ends  or  sides  of  these  rootlets  the 
animals  attach  themselves  to  any  foreign  body  they  happen  to 
find  in  the  deep  ooze  in  which  they  become  anchored ;  when 
once  fixed,  they  probably  remain  so  for  life.  The  stem  joints 
of  the  Bourgueticrinidae  are  movable  upon  one  another  ;  they 
are  not  uniformly  discoidal,  like  those  of  the  Pentacrinidae,  but 
are  strung  as  it  were  upon  five  tendons  of  variable  length. 

Agassiz,  who  watched  the  movements  of  Rhizocrinus  Raw- 
soni,  says  :  — 

"  When  contracted,  the  pinnules  are  pressed  against  the  arms,  and 
the  arms  themselves  shut  against  one  another,  so  that  the  whole  looks 
like  a  brush  made  up  of  a  few  long  coarse  twines.  When  the  animal 
opens,  the  arms  at  first  separate  without  bending,  but  gradually  the  tip 
of  the  arms  bends  outwards  as  the  arms  diverge  more  and  more,  and 
when  fully  expanded  the  crown  has  the  appearance  of  a  lily.  I  have 
not  been  able  to  detect  any  motion  in  the  stem  traceable  to  contraction, 
though  there  is  no  stiffness  in  its  bearing.  When  disturbed,  the  pin- 
nules of  the  arms  first  contract,  the  arms  straighten  themselves  out, 
and  the  whole  gradually  and  slowly  closes  up.  It  was  a  very  impres- 
sive sight  for  me  to  watch  the  movements  of  this  creature,  for  it  told 
not  of  its  own  way  only,  but  at  the  same  time  afforded  a  glimpse  into 
the  countless  ages  of  the  past,  when  these  crinoids,  so  rarely  seen  now- 
adays, formed  a  prominent  feature  of  the  animal  kingdom.  I  could 
see,  without  great  effort  of  the  imagination,  the  shoal  of  Lockport, 
teeming  with  the  many  genera  of  crinoids  which  the  geologists  of  New 
York  have  rescued  from  that  prolific  silurian  deposit,  or  recall  the  for- 
mation of  my  native  country,  in  the  hillsides  of  which,  also  among  fos- 
sils indicating  shoal-water  beds,  other  crinoids  abound,  resembling  still 
more  closely  those  we  find  in  these  waters." 

The  English,  French,  and  Norwegian  expeditions  discovered 
also  other  stalked  crinoids  belonging  to  the  genera  Bathycrinus, 


CIIAKACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CRINOIDS.  123 

Hyocrinus,  and  Ilycrinus ;  but  the  "  Blake  "  was  not  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  any  o£  these. 

The  last  and  perhaps  most  interesting  of  the  West  Indian 
stalked  crinoids  belongs  to  the  genus  Holopus.  (Figs.  413,  414.) 
Less  than  half  a  dozen  specimens  of  it  are  known  to  exist.  The 
fii'st  specimen  collected  is  now  in  the  museum  of  the  Ecole  des 


Fig.  414.  —  Half-gi'own  Holopus  Rangi. 
Fig.  413.  —  Adult  Holopus  Rangi.      ^.  ?•    (Carpenter.) 

(Carpenter.) 

Mines.  Sir  Rawson  W.  Rawson,  when  Governor  of  Barbados, 
obtained  three  specimens,  which  were  lent  to  Sir  Wyville  Thom- 
son, and  have,  with  the  material  of  the  "  Blake,"  formed  the 
basis  of  Dr.  Carpenter's  work  on  the  subject. 

The  genus  Holopus  was  established  by  D'Orbigny,  in  1837, 
from  a  single  specimen  which  was  brought  from  Martinique  by 
Sander  Rang.  Its  true  nature  was  not  recognized  by  other 
palaeontologists,  some  of  whom  considered  it  to  be  a  barnacle. 
The  dried  specimens  all  have  a  blackish  green  tinge  ;  the  single 
arm  dredged  off  Montserrat  had  a  whitish  tint.  The  arms  of 
all  the  specimens  are  strongly  curved,  closing  the  disk  entirely  ; 
but  of  course  this  is  not  the  natural  attitude  of  the  animal. 
Holopus  is  attached  by  an  irregularly  expanded  base,  formed  by 
the  extension  of  the  tubidar  calyx,  which  is  slightly  bent,  while 
a  constriction  separates  the  cup  from  the  spreading  base.  The 
youngest  specimen  (Fig.  415),  of  jet-black  color,  dredged  off 
Bahia  Honda,  only  3  mm.  in  diameter,  differs  very  much  from 
the  older  specimens,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  figures.     The 


124 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


specimen  was  attached  to  a  piece  of  rock,  and  was  not  detected 

until  it  had  become  dry.     The  general  shape  is  a  contracted 

truncated    cone,    with    irregular 

contour  of  attachment.    The  sur-  jj^^f^^^*^  * 

face  is  granulated  or  shagreen-       ^  ^^^mSJCM   Jyv^.^^ 

like,  with  a  few  small  tubercles 

scattered  over  it. 

The  great  peculiarity   of  the 
Caribbean  fauna  is  the  abundance  ^^e-  ^^•'-  ~  Hoiopus  Rangi. 

of  ten-armed  Comatulae  representing  both  the  principal  genera. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  Antedon  species  and  three  fourths  of 
the  Actinonietrae  belong  to  this  simple  type.  In  this  respect 
the  contrast  with  the  Comatula  fauna  of  the  Eastern  seas  is  very 
marked.  Ten-armed  forms  of  both  genera  are  there  decidedly 
in  the  minority. 

Of  all  the  Antedon  species  dredged  by  the  Coast  Survey  ex- 
peditions, that  with  the  widest  range  within  the  Caribbean  Sea 
is  the  little  ten-armed  Antedon  Hagenii  Pourt.  It  was  obtained 
by  the  "  Blake  "  on  the  Yucatan  Bank,  and  also  at  various  sta- 
tions between  Dominica  and  Grenada,  at  dif- 
ferent depths  between  75  and  291  fathoms  ; 
w^hile  Pourtales  dredged  it  in  great  abundance 
at  several  localities  in  the  Straits  of  Florida. 
Among  the  large  number  of  individuals  of  An- 
tedon Hagenii  from  the  Straits  of  Florida,  Car- 
penter noticed  a  few  examples  of  two  new  Ante- 
don species.  One  of  them  is  distinguished  by 
having  enormous  lancet-like  processes  on  the 
lower  joints  of  its  oral  pinnules  ;  while  the 
other  is  a  very  exceptional  type,  with  no  pin- 
nules at  all  upon  the  second  and  third  bra- 
chials, though  those  of  the  other  arm -joints 
are  developed  as  usual.  This  is  a  singular  con- 
dition, which  occurs  but  rarely  among  the  Co- 
matulae. Except  in  the  remarkable  type  Atele- 
crinus  (Fig.  416),  which  has  no  pinnvdes  at  all 
upon  the  ten  or  twelve  lower  arm-joints,  these 
are  the  only  Comatulae  which  Carpenter  has  ever  met  with,  in 


Fig.  416.  —  Ateleeri- 
nus.   |.    (Carpenter.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CRINOIDS. 


125 


an  examination  of  several  hundred  individuals,  that  present  any 
departure  from  the  ordinary  pinnule  arrangement. 

The  two  Comatulae  which  from  their  abundance  seem  especially 
characteristic  of  the  neighborhood  of  the  Caribbean  Islands, 
ranging  from  Santa  Cruz  to  Grenada,  are  an  Antedon  and  an 
Actinometra,  both  of  which  had  been  obtained  previously  to 
the  "Blake"  expedition.  In  the  year  1870,  Duchassaing 
brought  from  Guadeloupe  to  the  Paris  Museum  a  fine  specimen 
of  Antedon,  with  thirty  very  spiny  arms.  Carpenter  readily 
recognized  it  in  the  "  Blake  "  collection,  and  has  named  it  Ante- 
don  sjmiifera.  (Fig.  417.)  The  common  Actinometra  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea  is 
a  singularly  protean 
species,  which  was 
obtained  at  thirty 
stations  by  the 
"Blake."  The 
"  Hassler  "  dredged 
it  off  Barbados,  and 
it  was  found  by  the 
"  Investigator  "  off 
St.  Lucia,  and  also 
attached  to  the  Mar- 
tinique and  Domin- 
ica cable.  It  ranges  from  73  to  278,  and  possibly  to  380 
fathoms.  Not  only  is  it  everywhere  very  abundant,  but  it  pre- 
sents a  most  remarkable  series  of  minor  variations  on  one  fairly 
distinct  type,  which,  under  the  name  of  Actinometra  2^ulcheUa 
(Fig.  418),  includes  no  less  than  six  forms  apparently  distinct 
at  first  sight.  Most  of  the  specimens  have  twenty  arms,  occa- 
sionally a  smaller  number ;  some,  however,  have  as  few  as  twelve 
to  fifteen.  Actinometra  pulcliella  is  also  interesting  as  fur- 
nishing an  instance  of  variation  from  the  ordinary  type  of  five 
rays.  One  specimen,  like  that  dredged  by  the  "  Challenger,"  has 
six  rays.  It  is  curious  that  this  variation,  which  is  common  in 
Rhizocrinus,  should  be  so  rare  among  the  Comatulse. 

The  results  of  Carpenter's  examination  of  the  "  Challenger  " 
and  "  Blake  "   collections,  and  of  the  numerous  Comatulse  to 


Fig.  417.  —  Antedon  spinifera 


126 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


which  he  had  access  in  the  various  European  museums,  entirely 
confirm  and  extend  the  conclusions  to  which  he  had  previously 
been  led  respecting  the  separation  of  Antedon  and  Actinometra 
as  distinct  generic  types.  A  glance  at  the  skeleton  is  sufficient 
to  enable  one  to  distinguish  the  genus. 

With  another  species  of  Comatula,  in  450  fathoms,  Pourtales 
dredged  off  Cojima  two  mutilated  specimens  belonging  to  a  type 


Fig.  418.  —  Actinometra  pulchella.     ^. 

of  singular  interest.  This  new  Comatula  may  be  considered  as 
a  permanent  larval  form ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  singular  to  find 
larval  characters  persisting  in  recent  Comatulse.  For  this  re- 
markable combination  Carpenter  has  established  a  new  genus, 
which  he  proposes  to  call  Atelecrinus.     (See  Fig.  416.) 

In  conclusion,  I  may  mention  that  many  of  the  Comatulse  ex- 
amined were  the  hosts  of  Myzostomidse.  These  curious  para- 
sites have  been  fully  described  by  Dr.  von  Graff,  from  the  ma- 
terial of  the  "  Challenger  "  and  "  Blake."     I  give  here  figures 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CRINOIDS. 


127 


of  two  characteristic  species  of  these  worms,  strangely  modified 
to  adapt  themselves  to  the  peculiar  conditions  of  their  habitat. 

The  organs  of  the  body  are  arranged  radially,  and  the  mus- 
cular system  so  admirably  adapted  for  attachment  is  wanting  in 


Pig.  419.  —  Myzostoma  filicauda. 
Y-    (Von  Graff.) 


Big.  420.  —  Myzostoma  Agassizii. 
Y-.    (Von  Graff.) 


the  type  which  moves  about  freely  on  its  host.  In  another 
group,  a  male  and  female  inhabit  a  common  cyst,  caused  by  the 
presence  of  the  parasite  on  the  arm-joint  or  pinnule.  Myzos- 
to7na  filicauda,  the  host  of  Antedon  Ilagenii,  is  one  of  the 
species  with  caudal  append- 
ages (Fig.  419),  while  Myzos- 
toma Agassizii  represents  a 
type  with  long  filiform  cirri. 
(Fig.  420.)  Another  group 
forming  no  cyst  has  only  short 
cirri.  The  cysts  are  sometimes 
sausage-shaped  and  situated  on 
the  disk  of  the  host,  or,  like 
the  cyst  formed  by  M.  cystico- 

lum  (Figs.  421,  421  a)  on  the  arms  of  Actinometra  meridio- 
nalis,  they  resemble  plant  galls. 


Fig.  421.  Fig.  421  a. 

Myzostoma  cysticolum.     ^.     (Von  Graff.) 

Parasite  of  Actinometra  meridionalis. 


XX. 

CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA   TYPES.  —  ACALEPHS. 
CTENOPHOR^    AND    HYDROMEDUS^. 

As  with  fishes,  a  number  of  the  deep-sea  medusae  are  occa- 
sionally taken  at  the  surface,  and  undoubtedly  many  of  the  rarer 
of  our  jelly-fishes  are  deep-water  forms  which  have  accidentally 
found  their  way  to  the  surface.  To  these  probably  belongs  one 
of  the  most  graceful  of  our  jelly-fishes,  Ptychogena  lactea  (Fig. 
422),  which  swims  at  a  considerable  depth  below  the   surface. 

The  action  of  the  light,  and 
the  increase  of  temperature 
at  the  surface,  suffice  to  kill 
the  animal  in  a  short  time. 
As  soon  as  it  reaches  the 
surface,  the  disk  loses  its 
transiDarency,  the  genital  or- 
gans become  dull,  and  the 
medusa  is  soon  completely 
decomposed,  showing  that 
the  new  conditions  are  to- 
tally unlike  those  under 
which  it  habitually  thrives. 

From  the  character  of 
their  development  we  may 
either  find  medusae  on  the 
bottom  in  their  fixed  younger  hydroid  stages,  or  we  may  collect 
them  alive  from  the  surface  in  an  older  stage.  Others  again  are 
always  pelagic,  swimming  freely  on  the  surface  in  all  their  stages 
of  growth,  while  a  limited  number  of  the  so-called  deep-sea 
medusai  perhaps  inhabit  the  intermediate  depths  far  below  the 


Fig.  422. — Ptychogena  lactea.     J. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


ACALEPHS. 


129 


surface,  moving  from  the  bottom  towards  the  surface,  or  even 
occasionally  reaching  it. 

Although  many  of  the  characteristic  surface  jelly-fishes  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  general  sketch  of  the  Pelagic  Fauna 
and  Flora,  a  few  deserve  a  more  extended  notice  in  the  sys- 
tematic account  of  the  group.  Among  the  ctenophores  I  may 
mention  a  singular  genus,  Ocyroe,  which  has  passed  unnoticed 
for  over  fifty  years,  since  its  discovery  in  1829,  Unlike  the 
other  members  of  the  group,  it  makes  use  of  its  large  lateral 
lobes  as  flappers,  and  thus  propels  itself  through  the  water  with 
great  rapidity.  It  is  true  that  other  ctenophores  may,  to  a  lim- 
ited extent,  guide  their  movements  by  the  gentle  undulation  of 
the  lateral  lobes  of  the  body,  but  their  principal  means  of  loco- 
motion are  the  rows  of  locomotive  flappers,  or  combs,  from  which 
the  group  derives  its  name.  In  Ocyroe  the  movement  is  pro- 
duced by  the  development  of  muscular  fibres  on  the  inner  sur- 
face of  the  lobes.  Ocyroe  is  also  noted  for  structural  feat- 
ures of  the  highest  interest.  As  has  been  observed  by  Dr. 
Fewkes,^  it  combines  characters  which  exist  in  the  two  groups 
into  which  the  ctenophores  have  been  divided.  It  stands  inter- 
mediate between  the 
groups,  with  marked 
characteristics  o  f 
each.  It  is  the  only 
instance  of  a  cten- 
ophore  with  lateral 
lobes  not  provided 
with  tentacles.  The 
spotted  Ocyroe,  O. 
maculata  (Fig.  423), 
was  noticed  near  St. 
Vincent ;  and  a  spe- 

. , ,        ,  ,  Fier.  42.3.  —  Ocyroe  macnlata.     \. 

cies    Without    spots, 

probably  a  young  form,  0.  crystallina,  was  found  at  the  Tor- 

tugas. 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  stately  genera  of  tentaculated 

1  Dr.  Fewkes  has  prepared  the  greater  number  of  the  descriptions  of  acalephs 
here  given. 


130 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


ctenophores  is  the  well-known  Eucharis  multicornis  (Fig.  424), 
also  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  This  genus,  which  had  before 
escaped  observation  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  was  observed  at 
the  Tortugas  and  at  Key  West. 

Among  the  medusae  called  Discophorse  by  Agassiz,  one   of 


Fig.  424,  —  Eucharis  multicornis.    -J,     (Chun.) 

the  most  interesting  forms  is  Dodecahostrycha  duhia  (Fig. 
425),  the  largest  specimen  measuring  no  less  than  nine  inches 
in  height.  Several  specimens  of  a  dark  claret-color  were  brought 
up  in  the  trawl,  and  it  is  very  probable,  from  the  systematic 
affinities  of  this  medusa,  that,  like  its  allies,  the  Rhizostomae,  it 
lives  on  the  bottom,  rarely  coming  to  the  surface.  Belong- 
ing also  to  the  true  deep-sea  medusae  are  Periphylla,  Atoll  a, 
and  a  few  allied  genera.     The  first  genus  has  a  more  or  less 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. ACAL^PHS.  131 

pointed  conical  bell,  widening  below  into  a  funnel-shaped  mar- 
gin, the  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  bell  being  divided  into 
well-marked  regions  separated  by  a  characteristic  furrow.  The 
margin  is  formed  by  a  number  of  gelatinous  blocks  closely  fitted 
together,  which  serve  as  supports  for  important  organs  called 
socles.  These  support  tentacles,  marginal  sense  bodies,  and  thin 
leaf -shaped  lappets  which  have  given  the  genus  its  name.     The 


Fig.  425.  —  Dodecabostrycha  dubia. 


stomach  hangs  down  from  the  under  side  of  the  bell,  and  in  its 
spacious  receptacles  are  found  prominent  filaments.  The  color  is 
blue.  The  American  species  P.  hyacinthina  (Fig.  426)  extends 
as  far  north  as  the  coast  of  Greenland. 

None  of  these  so-called  deep-sea  medusae,  however,  present 
such  remarkable  features  as  the  species  of  AtoUa.  The  genus 
has  thus  far  been  taken  by  the  "  Challenger  "  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  on  the  borders  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  South  Indian 


132 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


oceans,  at  the  depth  of  about  2,000  fathoms.  It  is  repre- 
sented by  a  single  species,  A.  Wymllei.  In  the  Gulf  Stream 
and  North  Atlantic  we  have  two  species  of  Atolla,  discovered  by 
the  "  Albatross."  They  do  not  appear  to  be  confined  to  deep 
water,  but  sometimes  approach  the  surface.  No  discophore  has 
as  many  sense  segments  as  Atolla ;  and  a  marked  feature  of  the 
oral  surface  of  the  bell  is  the  large  muscle  found  on  the  under 


Fig.  426. — Periphylla  hyacinthina.     |.     (Fewkes.) 

side  of  the  corona.  The  ovaries  of  Atolla  consist  of  eight  kid- 
ney-shaped bodies  arranged  about  a  large  and  spacious  stomach, 
which  assumes  the  form  of  an  inflated  bag,  opening  into  a  recess 
in  the  walls  of  the  corona,  from  which  canals  extend  into  the 
tentacles  and  sense-bodies.  A.  Bairdii  is  here  figured.  (Fig. 
427.) 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  medusae  discovered  by  the 
"Blake"  belong  to  the  Siphonophorse.  They  are  eminently 
pelagic  in  character,  and  wide-spread  in  their  distribution.  Pre- 
viously to  <;Jie  "  Blake  "  expeditions  we  knew  only  a  few  genera 
of  these  beautiful  animals  from  the  American  coasts.  Although 
genera  of  siphonophores  occur  in  some  of  the  most  northern 
localities  visited  in  Arctic  exploration,  the  home  of  the  group 
is  essentially  in  the  warmer  waters.  This  group  seems  to  be 
most  varied  and  rich  in  the  West  Indian  area.     Before  1880, 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. ACALEPHS. 


133 


not  more  than  five  genera  were  known  from  the  Western  At- 
lantic, while  at  the  present  time  tliat  number  is  more  than 
doubled. 

Of  the  aberrant  group  of  Rhizophysidse  no  less  than  three 
species  are  now  known  from  the  Gulf  Stream.     One  of  the  most 


Fig.  427.  —  Atolla  Bairdii. 


(Fewkes.) 


characteristic  species  of  the  group,  Pterophysa,  has  been  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  on  the  Pelagic  Fauna. 

Agalma  Okenii  (Fig.  428)  is  common  in  the  Gulf  Stream ; 
it  is  easily  recognized  by  the  rigid  nature  of  the  colony,  and 
by  this  can  at  once  be  distinguished  from  the  Agalma  found 
at  Newport.  The  end  of  the  axis  opposite  the  float  bears  thick 
covering  scales,  while  in  the  Newport  Agalma  the  scale  is  leaf- 
like,  and  not  cubical  or  polygonal. 

One  of  the  least  known  genera  of  Physophorse  is  the  genus 
Athorybia.  It  is  remarkable  in  many  ways,  and  differs  from  all 
known  physophores  in  the  character  of  its  covering  scales  and 


134 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


the  absence  of  nectocalyces,  whose  function  is  in  part  taken  by 
the  covering  scales.     They  are  capable  of  a  slight  motion  on 
their  attachment,  and  by  this  movement  an  active  propulsion  is 
produced.     The  float  is  large,  and 
the    stem   very  much    reduced    in 
length.      The    genus   is   interesting 
from   its   resemblance   to   a   young 


Fig.  420.  —  Gleba  hippopus. 

(Fewkes.) 


stage  of  Agalma  having 

no  nectocalyces,  in  which 

a  similar  circle  of  covering 

scales  is  found.     A  new 

species,  A.  formosa,  from 

the  Florida  Keys,  has  been 

added  to  the  medusae  o£ 

the  Gulf  Stream. 

The  close  resemblance  of  the  swimming-bells  of  one  genus  of 

the  floatless   siphonophores  to   a  horse's   hoof   suggested  the 

name  of  hippopus  to   designate  a  wide-spread   Mediterranean 

species  {Gleba  hippopus,  Fig.  429)  found  in  the  Gulf  Stream 


Fig.  428. — Agalraa  Okenii.    \.    (Fewkes 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. ACALEPHS. 


135 


/ 


.V 


by  the  "  Blake."     In  its  affinities,  Gleba  is  one  of  the  most 

problematical  o£  all  the  siphonophores.     Like  the  physophores, 

it  has  two  rows  of  nectocalyces,  but  no 

true  float  or  covering-  scales.     Moreover, 

in  the  physophores  the  nectocalyces  nearest 

the  float  are  the  smallest  and  the  last  to 

form,  while  those  at  the  opposite  end  are 

larger.     In  Gleba  the  bells  at  the  anterior 

extremity  are  fully  formed,  while  those  at 

the  posterior  end  are  least  developed. 

We  have  two  or  three  species  of  a  dis- 
tinct group  of  siphonophores,  known  as  the 
Calycophorse,  one  of  the  most  common  of 
■which  is  Dlphyes  acuminata.  (Fig.  430.) 
Another  species,  belonging  to  the  genus 
Epibulia,  was  also  collected ;  it  is  similar 
to  a  Mediterranean  species,  and  is  probably 
the  same  as  that  recorded  from  the  coast  of 
Greenland  by  Leuckart.  The  genus  Aby- 
la,  A.  trigona,  was  found  in  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  fragments  of  a  large  Praya  were 
observed  near  the  Tortugas.  I  have  al- 
ready alluded  to  this  group  of  siphono- 
phores as  driven  into  Narragansett  Bay 
during  the  summer. 

The  first  extensive  report  on  deep-sea 
hydroids  was  based  upon  the  collections 
made  by  Pourtales  in  the  Straits  of  Florida. 
They  are  described  by  Professor  AUman, 
in  one  of  the  most  important  memoirs  ever 
published  on  this  group.  The  subsequent 
explorations  of  the  "  Blake  "  added  a  num- 
ber of  genera  possessing  most  important 
morphological  characters.  As  has  subse- 
quently been  found  in  other  collections  of 
deep-sea  hydroids,  a  majority  of  the  genera 
collected  belong  to  the  Plumularidse.  A  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Aglaophenia  {A.  crenata) 


^ 


^ 


430.  —  Diphyes   acu- 
(Fewkes.) 


nunata. 


136 


THREE  CRUISES  OF  THE  "  BLAKE. 


was  dredged  from  1 ,240  fathoms,  over  300  fathoms  deeper  than 
the  greatest  depth  at  which  any  phimularian  was  collected  by 
the  "  Challenger."  The  Tubularians,  so  common  in  shallow 
water,  do  not  seem  to  extend  to  any  considerable  depths.  A 
characteristic  plumularian  is  the  stately  Aglaophenia  bisjnnosa 
(Fig.  431),  dredged  off  Alligator  and  Tennessee  reefs,  from 
200  fathoms,  surpassed  in  size  by  very  few  hydroids.  The  cor- 
bulae  (Fig.  432)  are  very  beautiful,  and  present  a  most  instruc- 
tive illustration  of  the  morphology  of  the  organ.     The  lower 


Fig.  432.  —  Aglaophenia  bispinosa,  minified.     ( Allman.) 

part  of  the  stem  is  composed  of  tubes,  which,  at  rather  regu- 
lar intervals,  become  curiously  contorted  into  knob-like  projec- 
tions. (Fig.  433.)  They  become  separated  at  the  extreme  lower 
end,  where  they  form  a  large  entangled  mass  of  filaments. 

Cryptolaria  conferta  (Fig.  434),  forming  crowded  entangled 
tufts,  was  dredged  off  Cojima,  Cuba,  in  450  fathoms.     On  the 


Fig.  434.  —  Cryptolaria  conferta. 
\.     (Allman.) 


Fig.  435.  —  Cryptolaria  conferta, 
magnified.     (Allman.) 


branches  of  one  of  the  specimens  occurred  here  and  there  ir- 
regularly fusiform  shaped  bodies  (Fig.  435),  the  nature  of  which 


Fig.  433.  —  Lower  part  of  stem         Fig.  431 .  —  Aglaophenia  bispinosa. 
of  Fig.  4;^.!.     (Allman.)  j.     (Alliuau.) 


Fig.  436.  —  Cladocarpus  paradisea.     J.    (Allman.) 


Fig.  437.  —  Hippiirella  annnlata.     §.     (Fewkes.) 


Yig.  439.     Magnified 
Corbula. 


Fig.  438.    f 


Callicarpa  gracilis.     (Fewkes. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


ACALEPHS. 


137 


is  still  problematical,  suiTOunding  the  branch  where  they  occur 
like  minute  sponges.  They  are  found  to  consist  of  a  multitude 
of  flask-shaped  receptacles. 

The  genus  Cladocarpus  was  established  by  Allman  for  a  re- 
markable plumularian  obtained  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  North 
Atlantic  during  one  of  the  expeditions  of  the  "  Porcupine." 
Cladocarpus  jjaradlsea  (Fig.  436)j  a  beautiful  species,  very 
striking  from  its  deep  and  widely  separated  hydrothecse,  was 
dredged  off  Tennessee  Reef,  and  oiff  the  Samboes,  from  174 
fathomSi 

Hippurella  is  a  genus  founded  by  Allman  for  hydroids  in 
which  the  basal  ends  of  the  branches  carry  normal  pinnae,  while 
the  outer  end  of  the  same  bear  verticillately  arranged  ribs  modi- 
fied for  sheltering  the  sexual  bodies.  H'qij^urella  annidata 
grows  in  tufts,  numerous  undivided  stems  springing  from  a  com- 
mon base.  (Fig.  437.)  It  is  of  a  rather  rigid  habit;  it  was 
dredged  off  Pacific  Reef,  from  283  fathoms. 

In  Callicarpa  we  have  whole  branches  specialized  and  modified 
for  the  protection  of  the  sexual  bodies.     In  Callicarpa  gracilis 
(Fig.  438)  the  gonosome  closely  resembles  a  spike  of  wheat,  and 
springs  by  a  short  peduncle  immediately  from 
the  main  stem.     (Fig.  439.) 

The  most  important  of  the  family  of  Plumu- 
laridae  devoid  of  movable  nematophores  is  Pleu- 
rocarpa,  dredged  from  the  neighborhood  of  the 
island  of  St.  Vincent  in  95  fathoms.  In  the 
single  known  specimen  the  gonosome  (Fig.  440) 
certainly  is  the  most  extraordinary  modifica- 
tion of  the  branch  serving  as  a  protection 
for  the  sexual  bodies  thus  far  found  among- 
plumularians.  The  basket  -  shaped  structures 
called  corbulae,  which  serve  the  same  purpose 
in  other  genera,  are,  as  Allman  has  shown, 
modified  pinnae,  and  not,  as  in  Hippurella, 
CalHcarpa,  and  Pleurocarpa,  a  branch  or  por- 
tion of  a  branch  bearing  pinnae  modified  to 
become  specialized  bodies  with  the  form  of  cor- 
bulae. 


Fig.  440. 
Pleurocarpa  rarao- 
sa ;     magnified. 
(Fewkes.) 


138 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


HYDROCORALLIN^. 

To  the  hydroids  we  should  add  the  account  of  the  Hydro- 
corallinse,  which  until  recently  were  supposed  to  be  true  corals. 
Professor  Agassiz,  however,  observed  the  animal  of   Millepora, 

and  traced  its  acalephian  afiinity. 
The  polyps  of  Millepora  are  most 
difficult  to  observe  (Fig.  441), 
not  only  on  account  of  their  small 
size,  but  also  from  their  extreme 
sensitiveness  to  contact  with  air. 
Agassiz's  observations  have  been 
confirmed  by  several  investigators, 
especially  by  Moseley,  who  has 
greatly  increased  our  knowledge 
of  the  group,  and  has  in  addition 
shown  that  other  families  of  cor- 
als, the  Stylasteridse  and  Helio- 
poridae,  belong  with  the  Millepo- 
/  ridse  to  a  natural  group  for  which  he  has  proposed  the  name 
-^  Hydrocorallinae.    They  are  all  characterized  by  having  reproduc- 

tive, prehensile,  and  digestive  zoids  composing  the  community 
(Fig.  442),  reminding  us  thus  somewhat  of  the  siphonophores. 


Fig.  441.  —  Animal  of  Millepora. 

(Agassiz.) 


Fig.  442.  —  Millepora  nodosa,  Dactylozoid  Gastrozoid ;  magnified.     (Moseley. ) 


The  best  known  member  of  the  group  is  the  shallow-water 
Millepora  (Fig.  443),  which  is  represented  in  deep  water  in  the 
Caribbean  and  Florida  districts  by  Pliohothrus  symmetricus. 


Kg.  443.  —  Millepora  alcicomia.     5 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. HYDROCORALLINiE.     139 

(Fig.  444.)  It  has  also  been  found  by  the."  Porcupine  "  expedi- 
tion at  from  500  to  600  fathoms,  in  the  cold  area  to  the  north- 
ward of  the  British  Islands. 


Fig.  444.  —  Pliobothrus  synunetricus.     \.     (PourtalAs.) 

The  other  family  of  the  group  added  to  the  West  Indian 
fauna  by  deep-sea  dredgings  is  that  of  the  Stylasteridae ;  in 
some  of  the  genera  the  simple  circular  digestive  opening  is 
drawn  out   into  elongate   chambers,  while  in  some  genera  a 


f  f 


.  Kg.  445.   f .    '  Fig.  445  a.     {. 

Cryptohelia  Peireei.     (Pourtalfes.) 


tongue-like  process  or  a  lid  covers  in  part  or  wholly  this 
opening.  Such  an  expansion  of  one  edge  of  the  calycle  to 
form  a  lip  (Fig.  445),  folded  over  the  opening,  we  find  in 
Cryptohelia  Peireei.    (Fig.  445  a.) 

Among  the  most  beautiful  and  delicate  of  the  millepprian 
corals   found   on  rocky  bottom  is  Stylaster  filogranus   (Fig. 


140  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

446),  of  a  light  pink,  fading  into  white  in  the  younger  branch- 


'"'"  -  ih^A. 


Fig.  446.  —  Stylaster  filogranus.     \.     (Pourtales.) 

lets.     The  color  is  diffused  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the 
corallum.     Another  common  Stylaster  is  Distichopora  foliacea 


Fig.  447.  —  Distichopora  foliacea.     {•     (Pourtales. ) 

(Pig.  447),  characterized  by  its  small  calycles,  not   placed  in  a 
furrow,  irregular  lateral  pores,  and  serrated  edge. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. HTDROCORALLIN^.     141 

The  most  massive  of  our  deep-sea  corals  is  AUopora  miniacea. 
(Fig.  448.) 


Pig.  448. — Allopora  miniacea.     \.    (Pourtalis.) 


XXI. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  POLYPS. 


HALCYONOIDS    AND    ACTINOIDS/ 

Among  the  Anthozoa  the  deep-water  groups  of  the  West  In- 
dian district  are  most  interesting.  There  are  specimens  of  an 
Umbellula,  a  genus  first  accidentally  brought  up  from  deep  water 
off  the  coast  of  Greenland  early  in  the  last  century,  and  figured 
by  Ellis.  His  specimens  were  lost,  and  Captain  von  Otter  was 
the  first  to  rediscover  this  interesting  genus.  The  "  Blake  " 
dredged  fine  specimens  of  Umbellula  in  deep  water  in  several 
localities  in  the  West  Indies.  Our  species  of  Umbellula  ap- 
pears to  be  U.  Guntheri  (Fig.  449),  discovered 
by  the  "  Challenger."  A  second  species  has  since 
been  found  on  our  east  coast  by  the  Fish  Com- 
mission. 

A  number  of  fine  Pennatulse  were  brilliantly 
phosphorescent,  of  a  bluish  tint.  Their  light  is 
very  strong,  a  single  Pennatula  lighting  up  a  whole 
tub  full  of  water.  Pennatula  aculeata  (Fig.  450) 
is  a  common  species  off  our  coast,  extending  from 
Norway  to  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  and  as 
far  south  as  33°  north  latitude.  Of  the  peculiar 
club-shaped  genus  Kophobelemnon  (Fig.  451)  the 
"  Blake  "  collected  only  a  single  specimen,  but  it 
has  been  dredged  in  considerable  numbers  by  the 
Fig.  451.  —  Ko-  Fish  Commission.     In  certain  localities  it  extends 

phobelemnon  sea-  ^^  ^  ^^^^  ^f    ^^^^  2,000  fathomS. 

brum.      i.     (Ver-         ci  ^  '  o    ^  i  i 

riu.)  Several  species  ot  long  sea-wands  seem  to   be 

^  The  account  of  these  Anthozoa  has  been  prepared  from  the  reports  of  Professor 
Verrill  on  collections  of  the  "Blake  "  and  "  Albatross." 


y'ii 


Fig.  449.  —  Umbellula  Giintheri.     \. 


Fig.  450.  — Pennatula  actileata     |.     (Koren  &  Danielssen.) 


"i>»'  ,    'J 


Kg.  452.  —  Anthoptilum  Thomsoni.     ^.     (KoUiker.) 


Fig.  453.  —  Balticina  finraarchica.     \.     (Koren  &  Danielssen.) 
The  axis  is  figured  in  outline. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA   TYPES.  —  POLYPS. 


143 


the  favorite  abode  of  many  kinds  of  ophiurans,  and  of  sea- 
anemones,  which  are  attached  to  the  bare  portions  of  the  axis. 
We  may  mention  among  them  a  large  species  of  Anthoptilum 
(Fig.  452),  and  a  species  of  Balticina.  (Fig.  453.)  The  extrem- 
ity of  the  axis  of  many  of  these  wands  is  frequently  laid  bare 
by  injuries.  These  naked  spaces,  as  has  been  observed  by  Pro- 
fessor Verrill,  are  nearly  always  occupied  by  a  peculiar  Actinia 
(Actinauge),  of  which  the  sides  of  the  flat  base  spread  out 
longitudinally  so  as  to  wrap  around  the  axis 
of  the  polyp  and  meet  on  the  opposite  side, 
forming  a  regular  sheath  by  the  coalescence 
of  opposite  edges.  (Fig.  454.)  The  base  of 
adjoining  Actiniae  coalesces  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  thus  forms  a  continuous  covering 
over  the  dead  polyps. 

Professor  Kolliker,  who  examined  the 
"  Challenger  "  collection  of  Pennatulse,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  deeper  portions  of 
the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans  contain  very 
few  Pennatulae  at  a  certain  distance  from 
shore,  and  that  these  appear  to  have  a  wide 
distribution  along  the  shores ;  the  higher 
groups  especially  being  characteristic  of  shal- 
lower water,  while  the  simpler  forms,  the  representatives  per- 
haps of  an  extinct  fauna,  inhabit  the  greater  depths. 

The  gorgonians  are  well  represented  in  deep  water  by  pecu- 
liar genera,  of  which  the  base  is  specially  adapted  for  living  in 
the  mud,  where  it  branches  in  all  directions  penetrating  the  soft 
ooze  as  if  with  roots  ;  all  the  shallow-water  species  having  usu- 
ally a  flat  expansion  of  the  base,  by  which  they  attach  them- 
selves to  solid  substances,  rocks,  moUusks,  etc. 

Many  of  these  gorgo- 
nians are  of  an  orange  or 
reddish  orange  color ;  and 
the  most  characteristic  of 
these  is  the  elegant  Dasy- 
gorgia    Agassizii   (Fig. 

Fig.  455.  —  Dasygorgia  Agassizii.     1.     (Verrill.)         455),    a    plumOSe    much- 


Fig.  454. — Actinauge 
nexilis.  ^.   (Verrill.) 


144 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


branching  coral  with  slender  terminal  twigs,  while  the  main 
branches  are  spirally  arranged,  with  a  slender  brilliantly  irides- 
cent calcareous  axis.  The  polyps  are  large,  and  placed  rather 
far  apart.  It  belongs  to  the  deep-sea  family  of  Chrysogorgidse 
(Fig.  456),  established  by  Verrill  for  such  gorgonians  as  have 
usually  an  iridescent  axis  with  spiral  branches.     They  are  among 


Pig.  456.  —  Chrysogorgia.     ^. 


the  most  beautiful  and  interesting  of  the  gorgonians.  A  unique 
and  striking  species  of  the  group  is  Iridogorgia  Pourtalesii  (Fig. 
456  a)  with  its  regular  upright  spiral  main  stem,  and  long,  flex- 
ible, undivided  branches,  arranged  in  a  single  row  nearly  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  ;  forming  a  broad  spiral  like  the  skeleton 
of  a  spiral  staircase.     The  species  are  remarkable  for  their  ele- 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. POLYPS. 


145 


gance  of  form,  and  for  the  brilliant  lustre  and  iridescent  colors 
of  the  axis,  in  some  of  a  bright  emerald-green,  in  others  like 
burnished  gold  or  mother-of-pearl.     The  known  species  are  all 


Fig.  4.50  a.  —  Iridogorgia  Pourtalesii.     ^. 


inhabitants  of  deep  water,  and  with  the  exception  of  Dasy- 
gorgia  Agassizii,  which  occurs  off  the  New  England  coast,  are 
all  from  the  West  Indies. 

A  large  species  is  Lepidogorgia  gracilis,  which  grows  to  a 
height  of  neatly  three  feet.  A  smaller  gorgonian,  but  perhaps 
the  most  common  off  our  east  coast,  extending  from  200  to 
about  1,300  fathoms,  is  Acanella  Normani  (Fig.  457),  a 
branching  bush-like  orange-brown  coral.  It  grows  to  a  height 
of  about  a  foot,  and  is  nearly  as  broad  as  high,  its  branches 
growing  out  three  or  four  together  from  the  joints. 

Ceratoisis  ornata  is  a  large  and  beautiful  species  peculiarly 
characteristic  of  deep  water  in  all  latitudes,  its  golden  or  bronzy 
chitinous  joints  contrasting  finely  with  the  clear  ivory-white 
calcareous  ones.  Lepidisis  is  a  gorgonian  growing  in  the  shape 
of  a  tall  thin  stem  a  yard  or  more  in  height,  its  axis  divided 


146 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE.' 


into  joints  alternately  long  and  short ;  the  longer  ones  white, 
hollow,  and  calcareous,  and  the  shorter  ones  horny  brown. 
We  should  also  mention  Pi^imnoa  Pourtalesii  (Fig.  4:58),  a 
plumose  gorgonian  with  regularly  pinnate  branchlets  all  in  one 
plane.    To  this  genus  belongs  also  the  huge  bush  coral  Primnoa, 


Fig.  458.  —  Primnoa  Pourtalesii. 


(VemU.) 


which  grows  to  the  height  of  man,  and  has  an  axis  as  thick  as 
a  man's  leg. 

Many  of  the  gorgonians  are  beautifully  phosphorescent  when 
brought  to  the  surface,  and  their  closely  clustered  branches,  as 
in  Calyptrophora  (Fig.  459)  are  the  abode  of  hosts  of  Crustacea, 
annelids, .  moUusks,  and  echinoderms,  which  find  shelter  there 
from  their  enemies. 

The  Actinidae,  or  sea-anemones,  so  common  in  shallow  water, 
are  represented  by  a  number  of  species  in  our  deep  waters; 
many  of  them  are  finely  colored,  some  of  them  developing  a 
peculiar  base  adapted  to  soft  bottoms,  representing  perhaps,  as 
has  been  suggested  by  Verrill,  a  primitive  type  from  which  the 


Fig.  459.  —  Calyptrophora.     ^. 


Fig.  457.  —  Acanella  Normani.     5. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. 


POLYPS. 


147 


few  surviving  Pennatulidae  may  have  been  derived.  But  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  determining  satisfactorily  animals  of  this 
family  from  alcoholic  specimens,  we  shall  notice  only  a  few  spe- 
cies which  have  been  figured  from  life  by  Verrill. 

Sagartia  abyss icola  (Fig.  460)  is  often  found  attached  to  the 
tubes  of  Hyalinoecia.  A  large  red  or 
orange  species  of  Actinauge  is  A. 
nodosa  (Fig.  461),  the  column  of 
which  is  covered  with  hard  warts  ar- 
ranged in  rather  regular  transverse 
and  vertical  rows,  diminishing  in  size 
from  the  top  of  the  column  towards 


Fig.  461.  —  Actinauge  nodosa.     ^.     (Verrill.) 

the  base.     Specimens  of  four  inches 

in  diameter  and  six  inches  in  heisfht 

are  often  brought  up  in  the  dredge. 

It  has  been  dredged  ofP  our  eastern 

coast,  and   extends   from  the  Grand 

Banks  to  Cape  Hatteras.     Its  bathy- 

metrical  range    is   from   50   to.  600 

fathoms.      From    the   tentacles    and 

upper  part  of  the  column  is  secreted 

an  abundant  mucus,  which  is  highly  phosphorescent.     As  has 

been  suggested  by  Verrill,  these  Actiniae,  anchored  as  they  are 

in  the  mud  by  a  basal  bulb,  probably  lose  their  power  of  loco- 


Fig.  460.  —  Sagartia  abyssicola. 
f.     (Verrill.) 


148 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


motion  gradually  with  their  development,  and  finally  when  adult 
remain  fixed,  although  they  certainly  move  freely  about  when 
young,  like  other  shallow-water  actiniae. 

Epizoanthus  belongs  to  a  group  of  actiniae  usually  forming 
irregularly  shaped  incrusting  masses  and  incapable  of  locomo- 
tion. The  polyps  have  a  thick  leathery  column  of  a  bluish  or 
grayish-brown  color.  Two  species  are  quite  common  along  the 
•east  coast  of  the  United  States,  in  depths  varying  from  75  to 
600  fathoms.     (See  Fig.  235.) 

CORALS.^ 

A  series  of  fine  specimens  of  CaryophyUia  communis  (Fig. 
462)  well  shows  their  mode  of  growth.  The  young  is  erect, 
with  a  thin  peduncle  attached  to  a  small  pebble  or  shell ;  as  it 


Fig.  462. 


CaryophyUia  communis. 


Fig.  462  a. 
(Pourtal^s.) 


grows  in  height,  the  support  not  being  sufficient,  it  falls  over 
on  its  broadest  side,  and,  growing  upward  to  keep  the  calycle 
above  the  mud,  the  curved  base  is  produced.     (Fig.  462  a.) 
Stenocyathus  vermiformis  is  a  very  elongate  coral  resembling 

an  annelid  tube.  Specimens  fre- 
quently occur  having  a  living  and 
growing  polyp  at  either  end.  (Fig. 
463.)  These  specimens  are  gener- 
ally somewhat  curved,  as  if  they  had 
been  lying  in  the  mud  with  both 
ends  turned  up  and  projecting. 

^  The  account  of  the  corals  here  given  is  taken  from  the  various  reports  of 
Pourtales  on  the  "Blake  "  collections. 


Fig.  463. 


-  Stenocyathus    vermifor- 
i.    1      (Pourtalfes.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CORALS. 


149 


Two  species  of  the  genus  Thecocyathus  have  been  dredged, 
and  are  not  uncommon  in  from  100  to  315 
fathoms.  One  of  these,  T.  cyllndraceuSy  is 
here  figured.  (Fig.  464.)  The  genus  is  inter- 
esting as  dating  back  to  the  lias;  it  is  not 
known  from  any  of  the  formations  inter- 
mediate between  the  Has  and  our  epoch. 
The  recent  forms  present,  therefore,  a  com- 
paratively rare  instance  of  the  reappearance 
of  a  genus  apparently  extinct  through  a  con- 
siderable succession  of  ages. 

Deltocyathus  italicus  (Figs.  465,  465  a-d)  is  an  exceedingly 


Fig.  4(1-1—  riMM-ocya- 
thiis  cylindraceus. 
?.     (Pourtalfes.) 


Fig.  4^5  a. 


Fig.  465  c. 


Fig.  465. 


Kg.  465  d. 


Deltocyathus  italicns.     \.     (Pourtales.) 


variable  living  form  of  a  tertiary  fossil  common  in  Sicily.  The 
polyp  of  a  large  living  specimen,  dredged  in  115  fathoms  off 
the  Tortugas,  was  whitish,  with  short  club-shaped  tentacles. 
A  most  variable  species  is  Paracyathus  confertiis.  (Fig.  466.) 
Stephanotrochus  diadema  (Pig.  467)  seems  to  be  a  character- 
istic deep-sea  type.     It  has  been   dredged  in  734  fathoms  off 


150  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

Guadeloupe,  and  in  1,200  fathoms  fine  living  specimens  of  Fla- 


Fig.  466.  —  Paracyathus  conf  ertns.     \. 
(Pourtal^s.) 


r^^^:w 


Fig.  467.  —  fetepluiuotrochus  diadema.     \. 
(Poui-tales.) 


helium  Moseleyi   (Figs.  468,  468  a)  were  obtained ;  this  spe- 
cies has  an  extensive  geogi-aphical  range.     Its  ally,  Flabellwn 


Kg.  468. 


Flabellum  Moseleyi.       4, 


Fig.  468  a. 
(PoiirtaK's.) 


Goodei,  is  quite  common  off  the  east  coast  of  the  United  States, 
and  grows  to  a  considerable  size.  The  stout  tentacles  and  disk 
are  of  a  salmon-color. 

Desmophyllum  Riisei  (Fig.  469)  is  a  species  growing  in 
clusters ;  it  ranges  from  88  to  120  fathoms  off  Montserrat,  Do- 
minica, and  Martinique.  Desmophyllum  solidum  (Fig.  470) 
is  the  West  Indian  representative  of  several  species  of  this  tyjje 
from  the  tertiary  beds  of  Sicily.     A  very  fine  specimen  of  Des- 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. CORALS.  151 

mophyllum  crlsta-galli  came  up  attached  to  the  stem  of  a  Prim- 


Pig.  469.  —  Desmophyllum  Riisei.    \.  Fig-  470.  —  Desmophyllum  solidum.     \. 

(Pourtales.)  (Pourtalfes.) 

noa.     jRhizotrochus  fragilis  (Fig.  471)  was  obtained  in  about 


Fig.  471.  —  Rhizotrochus  fragilis.     ^. 
(Pourtales. ) 


Fig.  472.  —  Lophohelia  prolrfera.     \. 
(Pourtales.) 


forty  different  casts  along  the  Florida  Reef,  in  depths  varying 
from  49  to  324  fathoms.  It  was  most  abundant  between  100 
and  200  fathoms.  The  color  of  the  polyp  is  greenish  or  pale 
brick-red.     Lophohelia  prolifera  (Fig.  472)  has  a  very  exten- 


152 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE. 


sive  distribution  in  the  Atlantic,  and  is  a  common  Caribbean 
species. 

One  of  the  most  elegant  of  the  West  Indian  corals  is  the  pure 
white  Amphihelia  rostrata  (Fig.  473),  which  must  have  spread 


Fig.  413.  —  Ampliihelia  rostrata.    ^ . 


at  least  twelve  centimetres.  It  has  been  dredged  to  a  depth  of 
nearly  900  fathoms.  Axohelia  mirahilis  (Fig.  474)  is  very 
common  in  the  Caribbean,  and  is  rather  variable.  Many  spe- 
cimens are  deformed  by  barnacles  occupying  the  end  of  the 
branches,  which  soon  become  entirely  covered  by  the  coral, 
leaving  only  a  small  opening.  As  representatives  of  one  of 
the  most  natural  of  the  families  of  corals,  we  may  mention 
Thecopsammia  socialis  (Fig.  475)  and  T.  tintinnahulum,  of 
which  the  living  polyp  is  of  a  handsome  pinkish  orange  color. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA    TYPES. CORALS. 


153 


The  Fuiigidae  are  a  very  characteristic  shallow-water  form  in 
the  Pacific,  and  it  is  interesting-  to  note  that  from  deep  water 


Fig.  474.  —  Axohelia  mirabilis.     ^.    (Poiirtales.) 


Fig-.  475.  —  Thecopsaminia  socialis. 
i^6..     (Pourtalcs.) 


the  dredge  has  brought  up  three  small,  simple  species,  the  first 
simple  Fungia  found  in  our  seas.  Of  these 
we  may  mention  Fungia  symmetrica  (Fig. 
476),  found  by  the  dredgings  of  the  "  Chal- 
lenger "  to  be  one  of  the  most  common  deep- 
sea  corals.  It  has  a  world-wide  distribution ; 
it  occurs  in  the  West  and  South  Atlantic,  and 
in  the  North  and  South  Pacific,  and  has  a  very 
extended  bathymetrical  range ;  it  has  been 
dredged  by  the  "  Challenger "   in  30  fathoms 

and  in  2,900  fathoms,  and  in  all  inter- 
mediate depths.  The  range  of  tem- 
perature which  it  sustains  varies  from 
1°  to  20°  C.  It  has  been  found  by 
the  "  Blake "  ranging  from  175  to 
800  fathoms  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
the  Straits  of  Florida,  and  the  Carib- 


Fig.  476.  — Fungia 
symmetrica.  ^. 
(Pourtales.) 


Fig.  477.  —  Diaseris  crispa.     \. 
(PourtaUs.) 


154 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


bean.  The  specimens  of  Fimgia  symmetrica,  and  Diaseris 
crisjia  (Fig.  477),  if  found  in  a  sea  where 
larger  Fungise  were  common,  would  natu- 
rally be  considered  as  the  young  of  one  of 
them. 

Antillia  explmiata  (Fig.  478)  is  the 
first  species  of  this  tertiary  genus  found 
living. 

Attached  to  the  test  of  an  Asthenosoma, 
from  a  depth  of  373  fathoms  near  Montser- 
rat,  came  up  a  fine  specimen  of  the  delicate  Leptonemus  dis- 
cus (Fig.  479),  in  which  the  corallum  is  reduced  to  a  mere  lace- 
work. 


Fig.  478.  —  Antillia  ex- 
planata.   |.   (Pourtales. ) 


Fig.  479.  —  Leptonemus  discus.     ?.     (Challenger.) 

Among  corals  recalling  extinct  types  are  specially  to  be  men- 
tioned Haplophyllia  (Fig.  480),  Duncania,  and 
Guynia,  which  were  surmised  by  Pourtales  to  be- 
long to  the  Rugosa,  an  order  established  by  Milne- 
Edwards  and  Haime  for  a  large  number  of  fossil 
corals,  abundant  in  palaeozoic  times.  Their  chief 
characteristic  is  the  development  of  the  septa  from 
four  primary  ones  (Fig.  481),  whilst  in  all  of  the 
living  corals  the  primary  number  is  six.  In  addi- 
tion, the  chambers  are  closed  by  floors.  Ludwig 
has  shown,  however,  that  this  tetrameral  arrangement  of  the 


Fig.  480. 
Haplophyllia 


(Pourtales.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


CORALS. 


155 


Rugosa  is  only  apparent,  there  being  originally  six  primary 
septa,  two  of  the  systems  remaining  gen- 
erally undeveloped.  The  polyp  of 
Haplophyllia  paradoxa  is  scarlet,  with 
about  sixteen  rather  long  tentacles.  In 
another  species,  Duncania  harhadensis, 
the  polyp  is  deep  flesh-colored,  and 
there  are  from  25  to  30  conical  tenta- 
cles with  inflated  tips. 

The  Antipathidre  constitute  a  very 
natural  and  homogeneous  group,  hav- 
ing the  property  of  secreting  a  horny  polypidom.     One  of  the 
most  common  West  Indian  species  is  Anti2jathes  sjnralis ;    it 


Fig.  481. 
doxa. 


Haplophyllia  para- 

(Pourtalfes.) 


Fig.  482.  -^  Antipathes  spiralis.      ^ 
(Pourtales.) 


Big.  483.  —  Antipathes  colnmnaris.     f . 
(Pourtalfes.) 


has  been  dredged  from  no  less  than  twenty-three  stations,  in 
depths  ranging  from  45  to  nearly  900  fathoms.     The  polyps  of 


156  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "BLAKE." 

this  species  are  alternately  large  and  small,  with  very  long  digi- 
tiform  tentacles.  The  figure  (Fig.  482)  represents  them  as  they 
are  frequently  disposed,  the  larger  polyps  alone  being  visible, 
while  the  smaller  ones  can  only  be  seen  in  the  profile  view.  At 
other  times  the  tentacles  are  very  much  shortened  and  stiffened, 
and  stand  out  from  the  axis.  The  singular  mode  of  growth  of 
AntijKithes  columnaris  (Fig.  483)  deserves  a  few  words  of 
description.  The  central  hollow  column  is  occupied  by  an  an- 
nelid which  appears  to  compel  the  corallum  to  form  an  abnormal 
growth  of  that  shape.  Every  one  of  the  specimens  dredged 
was  similarly  affected,  and  the  annelid  was  still  in  place  in  most 
cases.  A  similar  action  of  parasitic  annelids  has  been  noticed  in 
some  true  corals,  such  as  Lophohelia,  Stylaster,  Allopora,  and 
others. 


XXII. 

CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  RHIZOPODS. 

There  must  be,  all  over  the  bottom  on  which  reticularian 
rhizopods  have  been  found,  thousands  of  undiscovered  minute 
protozoans  which  have  no  solid  tests.  On  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  examining  on  the  spot  the  samples  of  bottom  as  they 
are  brought  up,  we  can  only  conjecture  the  physiology  of  these 
lowest  types,  which  will  undoubtedly  be  discovered  whenever  the 
proper  methods  for  examination  are  employed.  In  the  mean 
time,  we  must  be  satisfied  with  a  knowledge  of  the  types  which 
have  become  known  to  us  from  their  tests ;  but  even  these 
do  not  explain  the  structure  of  their  animals ;  this  is  known 
to  us  only  by  comparison  with  that  of  their  shallow-water 
allies. 

No  special  report  of  the  "  Blake  "  Foraminifera  has  as  yet 
been  completed,  but  I  am  fortunate  in  being  able  to  extract  from 
the  admirable  memoirs  of  Brady  on  the  ^'  Challenger "  Fora- 
minifera, and  of  Dr.  Goes  on  the  Rhizopoda  of  the  Caribbean, 
descriptions  and  figures  of  the  principal  types  collected  by  us. 
Dr.  Goes,  during  a  stay  of  several  years  at  St.  Bartholomew, 
explored  a  considerable  area  with  the  dredge,  to  a  depth  of 
400  fathoms,  and,  owing  to  the  existence  of  extensive  sunken 
plateaux  and  steep  sloping  banks,  where  the  temperature  falls 
rapidly,  he  was  able  to  collect  the  majority  of  the  types  which 
we  subsequently  brought  together  from  deeper  waters,  but  which 
extend  upwards  to  depths  of  200  fathoms,  or  150  even,  and 
perhaps  less. 

Of  the  rhizopods  the  siliceous  radiolarians  play  an  unimpor- 
tant part  in  the  bottom  deposits  of  the  district  explored  by  the 
"  Blake."  A  few  surface  species  were  collected  in  the  track  of 
the  Gulf  Stream.     Yet,  judging  from  the  well-known  radiola- 


158  THKEE    CKUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

rian  earth  of  Barbados,  there  was  a  period  when  radiolarian  ooze 
must  have  been  an  important  deposit  of  the  West  Indian  region, 
probably  during  the  time  when  the  Caribbean  was  connected 
with  the  Pacific. 

The  arenaceous  types  of  foraminifera,  on  the  contrary,  abound 
in  the  bottom  deposits  of  the  Caribbean  and  Mexican  districts, 
and  along  the  Western  Atlantic,  and  the  principal  families  are 
all  well  represented  in  the  "  Blake  "  collections.  On  some  bot- 
toms, the  rhizopods  vie  in  the  variety  of  their  development  with 
those  found  in  some  of  the  celebrated  tertiary  and  cretaceous 
localities. 

There  is  a  marked  absence  of  siliceous  sand  and  a  scarcity  of 
siliceous  spicules  from  the  coralline  and  calcareous  ooze,  so  that 
rhizopodan  types  are  preeminently  calcareous ;  only  a  few  suc- 
ceed in  making  up  their  tests  entirely  of  siliceous  particles.  We 
shall  therefore  find  associated  siliceous  and  calcareous  forms 
greatly  differing  in  outward  shape,  but  Dr.  Goes  is  inclined  to 
consider  this  as  of  small  importance,  and  due  entirely  to  the 
difference  of  materials  employed  by  one  and  the  same  type, 
according  to  the  character  of  the  bottom,  and  that  a  sort  of 
isomorphism  is  established  between  species  formerly  considered 
as  belonging  to  either  the  arenaceous  or  vitreous  groups. 

Where  there  are  such  enormous  changes  going  on  during  the 
growth  of  a  species,  it  is  natural  that  in  this  group,  as  well  as 
in  sponges,  we  should  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  retain  our  old 
notions  of  species  ;  and  until  the  careful  investigations  of  Wil- 
liamson, Parker,  Carpenter,  and  Brady  among  the  foraminifera, 
and  of  Haeckel  among  the  sponges,  but  little  systematic  order 
had  been  established  in  these  groups.  Endless  generic  and 
specific  names  followed  in  rapid  succession,  till  the  task  of  iden- 
tifying any  form  of  these  groups  seemed  hopeless. 

While  among  the  more  highly  organized  invertebrates  the 
effect  of  the  nature  of  the  bottom  is  seen  rather  in  an  association 
of  animals  characteristic  of  rocky,  gravelly,  muddy,  or  sandy  dis- 
tricts, we  find  that  in  such  groups  as  the  sponges  and  rhizopods 
the  nature  of  the  bottom  is  an  all-essential  factor  in  modifying 
the  organism. 

The  bottom  of  the  slopes  and  plateaux,  and  of  the  area  where 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  RHIZOPODS.         159 

rhizopods  flourish,  between  150  and  400  fathoms,  consists 
mainly  of  a  chalky,  tough,  amorphous  ooze,  —  a  modified  pter- 
opod  and  globigerina  ooze.  Mixed  with  this  are  grains  of  sim- 
ilar material,  but  of  a  greater  consistency,  together  with  dead 
shells  of  pelagic  mollusks  and  foraminifers  and  a  great  number 
of  the  tests  of  dead  rhizopods,  which  once  lived  on  the  bottom 
and  among  which  flourished  in  great  abundance  the  innumer- 
able large  and  small  species  characteristic  of  the  Caribbean  dis- 
trict. The  majority  of  the  largest  rhizopods  occur  on  the 
bottom,  which  is  covered  with  the  coarser  fragments  of  coral- 
lines, annelid  tubes,  and  other  pieces  of  limestone,  soldered  to- 
gether more  or  less  compactly,  and  transformed  into  rough 
masses  and  lumps  resembling  coarse  mortar  or  gravel. 

Associated  with  the  arenaceous,  siliceous,  and  calcareous  rhizo- 
pods which  undoubtedly  live  upon  the  bottom,  we  find  the  tests 
of  Globigerinae,  Hastigerinas,  Pulvinulinae,  and  many  others 
which  have  also  been  observed  as  pelagic.  For  a  time  it  was 
supposed  that  the  deposits  so  widely  extended  were  due  to  Glo- 
bigerinse  living  on  the  bottom,  but  the  evidence  gradually 
brought  forward  by  Bailey,  Johannes  Miiller,  Pourtales,  Major 
Owen,  and  especially  by  Mr.  Murray  of  the  "Challenger,"  seems 
to  leave  no  doubt  that  the  Foraminif  era  to  which  the  globigerina 
ooze  is  due  are  pelagic,  the  ooze  being  formed  by  the  dead  shells 
after  they  have  reached  the  bottom. 

One  of  the  most  common  types  of  rhizopods  is  Biloculina 
ring  ens  (Figs.  484,  484  a,  484  6),  a  most  abundant  form  in 


Pig.  4H4.     \.  Pig.  484  a.     \.  Pig.  484  6.  ^. 

Bilocnlina  ringenii.     (Gh)es.) 


deep  water  in  the  Atlantic ;  it  is  found  nearly  everywhere,  from 
the  littoral  region  to  a  depth  of  3,000  fathoms.  Along  our 
coast  off  Block  Island,  and  in  a  portion  of  the  area  between 


160  THKEE    CKUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

Norway,  Bear  Island,  and  Spitzbergen,  Biloculina  ringens  forms 
the  most  important  organic  constituent  of  the  bottom  deposits, 
and  Pourtales  and  Sars  have  named  this  the  Biloculina  clay ; 
but  this  term  is  hardly  to  be  understood  in  the  same  sense  in 
which  we  speak  of  globigerina  ooze,  the  Biloculinse  formino- 
but  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  ooze  deposit.     (Fig.  485.) 


Fig.  485.  —  Biloculina  tenera.     With  expanded  pseudopodia.      ^^.      (Schultze.) 


Orhiculina  adunca  (Fig.  486)  is  a  very  common  deep-water 
form  ;  it  attains  a  diameter  of  6  mm.     In  both  Orhiculina  and 


Fig.   487.     \o. 
Fig.   486.     Y- 

Orhiculina  adunca.     (Brady.) 

its  ally,  Orbitolites,  the  young  of  the  disk-like  foraminifer  is 
nautiloid  (Fig.  487) ;  but  as  the  chambers  of  the  adult  increase 


CHAKACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. RHIZOPODS.  161 

in  number  they  become  more  circular,  and  finally  conceal  the 
original  nautiloid  structure  of  the  test. 
The  genus  dates  back  to  the  miocene. 
Except  along-  the  American  coast, 
where  the  genus  appears  to  be  a  deep- 
sea  ty|je,  Orbitolites  is  found  in  shal- 
low water  J  it  is  quite  common  on 
coral  reefs.  Cornuspira  foliacea  (Fig. 
488),  though  it  occurs  in  the  arctic 
seas  in  great  abundance  in  compara- 
tively shallow  water,  is  not  uncommon 
in  the  pteropod  ooze  of  the  Caribbean. 
Astrorhiza  (Fig.  489)  is  a  soft-tubed 
type  remarkable  for  the  absence  of  any 
definite  aperture,  the  pseudopodia  pos- 
sibly finding  their  way  out  between  the  loosely  aggregated  sand- 


Fig.  488.  —  Cornuspira  foliacea. 
f     (Goes.) 


Kg.  489.  —  Astrorhiza  limicola.     \.     (Brady. ) 


grains  of  which  it  is  composed.  It  has  been  found  off  Block 
Island  and  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  at  mod- 
erate depths.  The  great  variety  in  the  composition  and  consist- 
ency of  the  test  seems  due  in  part  to  the  material  of  the  bot- 
tom, and  in  part  perhaps  to  the  great  stillness  of  the  waters  in 
which  it  lives.  This  type  was  first  described  by  Dr.  Sundahl, 
in  1847,  from  specimens  found  in  shallow  muddy  water  on  the 
Scandinavian  coast.     Allied  to  Astrorhiza  is  a  not  uncommon 


162 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


species  of  Pelosina,  a  flask -shaped  rhizopod  with  thick  walls 
composed  of  globigerina  ooze.  Another  type  of  the  same  group 
resembles  a  long-necked  flask  with  branching  calcareous  pro- 
jections, but  thickly  covered  outside  with  fragments  of  sponge 
spicules.     Large  fragments   of   a  mammillary  mass  of  loosely 


Kg.  490.  —  Sorosphaera  conftisa. 


(Brady. 


crumbling  character,  Sorosphcera  confusa  (Fig.  490),  are  not 
uncommon  from  the  Caribbean  globigerina  ooze. 

Hyperammina  elongata  (Figs.  491,  491  a),  almost  a  cosmo- 


Pig.  491.  Pig-  491  a. 

Hyperammma  elongata.     \.     (Goes.) 


politan  species,  builds  a  long,  slender  tube  which  attains  a  length 
of  15  mm.     Sometimes  it  is  constructed  of  siliceous  sand  and 

sponge  spicules.  It  has  been  dredged 
in  the  North  Atlantic  to  nearly  1,800 
fathoms.  The  genus  dates  back  to  the 
Silurian.  Rhabdammina  ahyssorum 
(Fig.  492),  composed  entirely  of  sili- 
ceous sand-grains,  is  one  of  the  most 
„,  ,  ,       .      ,         characteristic  forms  of  the  deeper-water 

-  Khabdarainina  abys-  /-^    ii>       o 

.    f    (Brady.)  rhizopods  of   the   Caribbean,    Guli  or 


Pig.  492. 


CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA   TYPES. RHIZOPODS. 


163 


Mexico,  and  Gulf  Stream.  The  three  (Fig.  493)  or  four  armed 
varieties  often  come  up  in  great  quantities  in  the  dredge,  and  at- 
tain a  length  of  from  16  to  20  mm.  R.  ahyssorwn  has  a  world- 
wide distribution ;  it  was  discovered  by  the  elder  Sars,  and  de- 


Rg.  493. — Rhabdammina  abyssorum.      \.     (Brady.) 


scribed  in  his  first  list  of  animals  living  in  deep  water  off  Norway. 
This  species  presents  many  interesting  modifications  dependent 
on  external  conditions,  and  its  polymorphism  seems  remarkable ; 
it  is  triradiate,  quadriradiate,  or  a 
straight  tube,  including  all  their  possible 
combinations.  A  small  straight  form 
of  the  genus,  R.  linearis  (Fig.  494),  is 
also  frequent  near  the  500-fathom  line. 

One  of  the  species  of  Lituolinae,  ReopJiax  scorpiurus,  attains 
a  length  of  10  mm.     It  builds  its  test  loosely  of  siliceous  sand 


Fi^.  494.— 
aris. 


Rhabdammina  line- 
4.     (Brady.) 


Fig.  49.5. 


Fig-.  405  a. 


Reophax  scorpiurus. 


(Goes.) 


and  sponge  spicules.    (Figs.  495, 495  a.)    A  widely  spread  form 
crowded  with  nipple-shaped  protuberances,  Thurammina  papil- 


164  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

lata  (Fig.  496),  is  frequently  brought   up   iu  the  globigeriua 

ooze  from  depths  greater  than  400  fathoms. 

The  group  dates   back   to   the   Jurassic,  and 

seems  to  be  a  characteristic  deep-sea  type  in 

all  the  oceanic  basins.      Amniodlscus  tenuis 

(Fig.  497),  taken  by 
the  "Challenger"  off 
New  York  in  1,300 
fathoms,  is  a  recent  rep- 
resentative of  a  very  common  palaeozoic 
type  of  the  carboniferous  period. 

According  to  Brady,  Cyclammina  (Fig. 
498)  represents  in  our  seas  the  highest 
type  of  arenaceous  foraminifers.  The 
genus  is  characterized  by  the  labyrinthian 

structure  of  the   test  (Fig.  499),  and  is  abundant  in   depths 

below  100  fathoms  in  the  West  Indian  region. 


Fig.  496.  —  Tliurani- 
mina  papillata.  kP . 
(Brady.) 


Kg.    497-  —  Ammodiseus 
tenuis.      V* .     (Brady. ) 


Fig.  498 


Fig.  499.     \o 


Cyclammina  cancellata.     (Brady.) 


Most  variable  in  the  shape  and  structure  of  their  shells  are 
the  Textularinse.  A  very  common  type 
of  the  group  is  the  cosmopolitan  Tex- 
tidaria  sagittula  (Fig.  500),  which  at- 
tains a  length  of  6  mm. ;  it  has  been 
dredged  in  the  Atlantic  in  2,675  fath- 
oms. Another  abundant  form,  which 
dates  back  to  the  cretaceous,  is  the  com- 
pact and  thick-walled   T.   trochus   (Figs. 


Fig.  500.  — Textularia  sagit- 
tula.    \o.     (Goes.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. RHIZOPODS.         165 

501,  501  «),  with  its  smooth  surface  covered  with  fine  pores. 


Pig.  501.  Textularia  trochiis.    \.    (Goes.)        Fig.  501  a. 

Valvulina  triangularis  (Figs.  502,  502  a),  a  North  Atlantic 


Kg.  502.  Valvulina  triangularis.    ^.     (Goes. )  Fig.  502  a. 

foraminifer,  is  also  one  of  the  typical  West  Indian  rhizopods  ; 
it  is  characterized  by  its  loosely  constructed  test. 

The  Lagenidae  are  a  most  widely  distributed  type;  accord- 

^^^-^^  ing   to  Brady,   they  are  found   in  all 

^^^ttti^^^^^im^'''^   seas,    at   all    depths   from    the   littoral 

Fig.  503.  —  Lagena  distoma.      region  to  3,000  fathoms.     One  of  the 

^'  ^'  common   species,  Lagena    distoma,   is 

here  figured.     (Fig.  503.) 


166 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


Fig.  504. 
Nodosaria 
dicula. 
(Goes.) 


One  of  the  most  variable  foraminifers  is  Nodosaria  radicula 

(Fig.  504),  an  Atlantic  species  of  wide  distribution. 

It  is  known  by  innumerable    specific    names,  and 
the  list  of  its  varieties,  as  given  by  Dr. 
Goes,  fills  no  less  than  ten  quarto  pages, 
these   varieties    representing    all    those 
possible    combinations    of     smoothness, 
roughness,  and  striation  of  the  test,  or 
in   the   shape   of    the   chambers,   Avhich 
seemed  important    to    their    describers. 
In  many  other  species,  also,  names  have 
been    multiplied     indefinitely.       A    species    widely 
spread,  both  over  the  coralline  bot- 
tom  and    ooze,  is  Nodosaria  com- 
munis (Fig.  505),  which   attains  a 
size  of   22   mm.      It  closely  resem- 
bles one  of  the  cretaceous  species, 
and   dates   back    to    the    permian. 
From   the    same  bottom  comes  the 
diminutive    Cristellaria    crepidula 
(Fig.  506),  remarkable  for  its  beau- 
tiful pearly  shell.     The  West  Indian 
specimens    of     Cristellaria    calcar 
(Fig.  507)  fully  equal  in  size  those   fj^.  506.~ri8tei 

from  the  chalk  and  tertiaries.  i^ria  crepidula. 

Closely  allied  to  the  Nodosarinse  is  Sagrina       ^ 

dimorpha  (Figs.  508,  508  a),  abundant  in  the  ooze 


Pig.  505. 
Nodosaria 
communis, 
f.     (Goes.) 


(Goes.) 

It  attains 


Fig.  507. 

Fig.  508. 

Fig.  508  a. 

Fig.  509. 

Cristellaria  calcar. 

¥• 

Sagrina  dimoi-pha. 

f     (Goes.) 

Polymorphina  ovata 

(Goes.) 

Y-      (Brady.) 

a  size  of  4  mm.  in  length.  Living  specimens  of  Polymorphina 
ovata  (Fig.  509)  have  been  obtained  by  the  "  Blake "  and 
"  Challenger  "  in  the  Caribbean  district. 


Fig.  510.  —  Orbuliiia  uuiversa.     Y-  (Surface.     (Challenger.) 


CIIAKACTEKISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. KlIIZOPODS.         1G7 

Orhullna  umversa,  a  cosmopolitan  species,  dates  back  to  the 
lias  and  is  very  common  in  the  tertiary.  It  is  widely  distributed 
on  the  coralline  and  ooze  of  the  Caribbean,  and  one  of  the 
pelagic  types  most  frequently  found.  Pourtales  discovered  that 
bottom  specimens  of  O.  unwersa  did  not  always  consist  of  a 
simple  chamber,  but  generally  included  three  or  four  chambers 
(Fig.  510),. resembling  young  Globigerinse  more  or  less  devel- 
oped, and  attached  to  the  inside  by  slender  spicules.  Krohn 
observed  the  same  in  living  specimens.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  Globigerinse  in  the  chamber  are  resorbed,  and  that  the  vis- 
ible spherical  chamber  is  the  last  segment,  considered  at  one 
time  to  be  a  special  reproductive  chamber,  and  capable  of  wide- 
spread existence.  The  Globigerinse  are  eminently  pelagic,  some 
of  the  genera  exclusively  so,  and  the  shells  when  alive  are  thin 
and  transparent. 

The  shell  of  Globigerina  is  composed  of  a  series  of  hyaline 
and  perforated  chambers  of  a  spheroidal  form,  arranged  in  a 
spiral  manner,  with  the  apertures  of  each  chamber  opening 
round  the  umbilicus.  The  young  shells  are  made  up  of  fewer 
and  comparatively  larger  chambers.     The  tests  of  Globigerina 


Fig.  511.  Fig.  ')U  a.  Fig.  511  b. 

Globigerina  bulloides.     \^.     (Goes.) 

hulloides  (Figs.  511,  511  «,  511  h)  and  of  Orhullna  unwersa 

(Fig.  512)  are  among  the  most  common  deep-water  rhizopods. 

Globigerinae  are  spinous  in  their  early  stages,  and  probably  more 

or  less  so  when  the   shell  has  attained  its  full 

development,  but  the  spines  are  of  such  extreme 

tenuity  that,  when  taken  with  the  tow-net,  they 

are  invariably  broken.     Bottom  specimens  have 

no  spines,  and  these  may  be  present  perhaps  only 

in   the   pelagic   stage  ;    the    delicate    calcareous     ^^^^^^  nniversa! 

spines,  from  four  to  five  times  the  diameter  of  the 


168  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    ^^  BLAKE." 

shells,  enabling  them  to  float  with  greater  facility  by  increasing 
their  surface  immensely.  When  alive,  "  the  sheaves  of  these 
spines  cross  in  different  directions,  and  have  a  very  beautiful 
effect."  The  inner  chambers  are  filled  with  a  colored  sarcode, 
either  red  or  orange.  No  trace  of  pseudopodia  has  as  yet  been 
observed,  or  any  extension  of  the  sarcode  beyond  the  shell. 

Glohigerina  hulloides  has  been  found  pelagic  everywhere  in 
the  West  Indies,  as  well  as  in  the  bottom  dredgings  of  the  Ca- 
ribbean and  the  Gulf  Stream.  It  is  not  so  abundant  after  pass- 
ing north  of  Cape  Hatteras.  I  have  not  found  it  pelagic  off  the 
coast  of  the  Middle  States.  Hastigerina  is  eminently  a  pelagic 
type.  It  had  been  known  from  the  coast  of  South  America 
many  years  previously  to  its  rediscovery  by  the  "  Challenger." 
It  is  not  an  uncommon  pelagic  type  off  the  Tortugas,  and  was 
found  on  one  occasion,  on  a  very  calm  day,  swarming  on  the 
surface  with  Glohigerina  hulloides. 

A  minute  scale-like  foraminifer,  Discorhina  orhicularis,  is 
commonly  found  in  the  coral  reefs  of  the  West  Indies.  An- 
other peculiar  form,  also  found  living  in  the  West  Indian  reefs, 


Fig.  513.  —  Cymbalopora  buUoides.     *^.     (Challenger.) 

is  Cymbalopora ;  one  of  the  species  of  the  genus,  however,   C. 
hulloides  (Fig.  513),  is  also  pelagic. 

The  most  protean  of  West  Indian  rhizopods  is  perhaps  Car- 
penteria  halaniformis.     (Fig.  514.)      Its  regular  structure  is 


Fig.  514. — Carpenteria  balaniformis.     |.     (Groes.) 

rotaline,  but,  owing  to  its  propensity  for  developing  additional 
chambers  from  the  upper  extremity  and   from   the    chamber 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. RHIZOPODS. 


169 


walls,  the  greatest  variety  of  forms  and  of  deviation  from  the 
parent  type  results. 

Fulv'umlina  auricula  (Figs.  515,  515  a)  is  a  handsome  hya- 


Fig.  515.  Fig.  515  a. 

Pulviiiulina  auricula.     ^.     (Goes.) 


Fig.  516.  Fig.  517. 

Pulvinulina  Menardii.     ^.     (Goes.) 


line  species,  and  its  ally,  P.  Menardii  (Figs.  516,  517),  is  one 
of  the  most  common  deep-water  species.  It  is  also  pelagic. 
Another  deep-water  form  is  Truncatulina  Un- 
geriana.  (Fig.  518.)  The  little  Polytrema 
miniaceum  (Fig.  519)  is  a  delicate  red  parasitic 
foraminifer,  occurring 
everywhere  in  the 
West  Indies,  which 
resembles  certain  mi- 
nute corals.  It  has  a 
long  geological  history,  dating  back 
to  the  devonian.  Of  the  Nummuli- 
nidse,  Polystomella  crispa  is  one  of 
the  most  abundant  West  Indian  types       ,,.     ^.^     „  , 

•'  *■  Fig.  519.  —  Polytrema  nunia- 

of  moderate  depths.  ceum.   y 


Kg.  518.  —  Trun- 
catulina Ungeri- 
ana.   ^^.  (Goes.) 


XXIII. 

CHARACTERISTIC   DEEP-SEA  TYPES.  —  SPONGES.^ 

We  are  led  by  the  study  of  the  Sponges  to  some  of  the  most 
interesting  biological  problems.  All  our  ordinary  notions  of 
individuality,  of  colonies,  and  of  species  are  completely  upset. 
It  seems  as  if  in  the  sponges  we  had  a  mass  in  which  the  dif- 
ferent parts  might  be  considered  as  organs  capable  in  themselves 
of  a  certain  amount  of  independence,  yet  subject  to  a  general 
subordination,  so  that,  according  to  Haeckel  and  Schmidt,  we 
are  dealing  neither  with  individuals  nor  colonies  in  the  ordinary 
sense  of  the  words. 

As  Schmidt  well  says  :  "  From  the  variability  of  all  charac- 
ters our  ideas  of  an  organism  as  a  limited  or  centralized  indi- 
vidual disappear  in  the  sponges,  and  in  place  of  an  individual 
or  a  colony  we  find  an  organic  mass  differentiating  into  organs, 
while  the  body,  which  feeds  itself,  and  propagates,  is  neither  an 
individual  nor  a  colony." 

We  shall  specially  dwell  on  the  more  prominent  Hexactinel- 
lidse  and  Lithistidse  of  the  Caribbean  district.  These  groups 
date  back  to  the  lower  silurjan,  and  take  an  extraordinary  de- 
velopment in  the  Jura ;  they  are  quite  abundant  in  the  upper 
cretaceous,  but  poorly  represented  during  the  tertiaries.  Wyville 
Thomson  was  perhaps  the  first  to  insist  upon  the  relationship  of 
the  Hexactinellidse  with  types  of  former  geological  periods,  the 
Ventriculites  of  the  chalk.  They,  like  the  Lithistidae,  the  re- 
mains of  a  second  fossil  family,  are  in  decided  minority  in  the 
seas  of  to-day. 

The  absence  of  siliceous  and  other  sponges  in  the  collections 
made  along  the  northern  part  of  the  east  coast  of  the  United 
States  is  very  striking,  and  although  the  number  of  specimens 

^  The  account  of  the  sponges  has  been     Oscar  Schmidt  on  the  Atlantic  and  Carib- 
prepared  from  the  memoirs  of  Professor      bean  sponges. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


SPONGES. 


171 


of  certain  species  was  often  very  great,  yet  the  continental  fauna 
of  that  region  is  poor  when  compared  with  the  wealth  of  species 
found  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Among  the  Hexactinellidse  one  of  the  most  common  types  is 


e. 


r 


Pig.  520.  —  Farrea  fae 


the  variable  Farrea  facunda  (Fig.  520),  which  occurs  either  as 
a  simple  or  a  somewhat  complicated  form  ;  it  is  found  at  depths 


Pig.  521.  —  Lefroyella  decora,     f . 


of  300  to  1,000  fathoms.     One  of  the  finest,  figured  by  Thom- 
son, a  species  called  Lefroyella  decora  (Fig.  521),  was  dredged 


172 


THREE    CRUISES    OF   THE    "  BLAKE. 


by  him  from  a  depth  of  1,075  fathoms  off  the  Bermudas.     It 
must  have  attained  at  least  a  foot  in  height. 

Another  most  common  and  at  the  same  time  most  exquisite 
type  of  HexactineUidse  is  A2^hroGallistes  Bocagei  (Fig.  522), 


Kg.  522.  —  Aphrocalliates  Bocagei.    f . 

which  has  been  dredged  by  the  "  Blake  "  in  depths  of  from  164 
to  400  fathoms.  It  is  also  found  in  the  eastern  basin  of  the 
North  Atlantic.  The  network  appears  to  be  formed  by  the  co- 
alescence of  stellate  spicules.  These  sponges  are  often  attached 
to  corals  and  soldered  together,  so  as  to  form  large  convo- 
luted masses.  Dactylocalyx  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic 
of  the  Caribbean  types.  The  shape  of  Dactylocalyx  pumi- 
ceus  (Fig.  523)  varies  from  that  of  a  cup  to  that  of  a  flat 
dish  attached  by  a  short  stem.     The  surface  is  furrowed  and 


Rg.  52.3.  —  Dactylocalyx  pmriiceus.      -j-. 


Pig.  524.  —  Regadella  phoenix.    |. 


Kg,  525.  —  Eupleetella  Jovis.     ^. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA   TYPES. SPONGES. 


173 


perforated,  and  the  sculpture  is  arranged  radially  with  some 
degree  of  regularity. 

The  Euplectellidae  (known  principally  as  Venus's  Basket,  from 
the  Philippine  Islands)  are  represented  in  the  West  Indian  region 
by  huge  species,  and  by  peculiar  types  adapted  to  a  rocky  bot- 
tom, such  as  Reyadella  phcenix  (Fig.  524),  while  the  typical 
Euplectellae  seem  to  have  flourished  best  in  ooze.  Euplectella 
Jovis  (Fig.  525)  must  have  been  at  least  48  centimetres  in  length. 

Hyaloiiema  Sieboldii  (Fig.  526),  a  cosmopolitan  species,  was 


Fig.  526.  —  Hyalonema  Sieboldii.     g. 

also  found  near  Grenada  in 
416  fathoms.  The  Japanese 
long  deceived  naturalists  re- 
garding a  species  of  Hyalo- 
nema representing  the  bun- 
dle of  siliceous  spicules  as 
the  axis  of  a  Gorgonia-like 
animal.     (Fig.  527.)     Leidy 


Kg.  527.  —  Spicules  of  Japanese  Hyalo- 


174 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE. 


was  the  first  to  show  that  the  sponge  and  siliceous  cable  were 
one  organism,  and  the  polyps  mere  parasites  attached  to  it  above 
the  mud  and  below  the  sponge  (Fig.  528),  a  view  which  has 
been  fully  confirmed.  Asconema  setuhalense,  a  magnificent  sili- 
ceous sponge,  first  dredged  by  Kent  off  the  coast  of  Portugal, 
has  a  wide  geographical  distribution.  Very  fine  specimens  were 
collected  by  the  "Talisman,"  and  one  of  the  adjoining  figures 


Fig.  531.  —  Holtenia  Poiirtalesii.     |. 

(Fig.  529)  is  taken  from  one  of  the  best  preserved  specimens 
of  the  French  expedition.  It  is  a  common  species  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  from  300  to  600  fathoms.  Pheroiiema  Annce  (Fig. 
530),  first  described  by  Leidy,  is  represented  by  some  most 


Fig.  528.  —  Japanese  Hyalonema.     ^. 


Fig.  529.  —  Asconema  setubalense.     \.     (Filhol.  "  Talisman  "  Ex.) 


J/  i! 


Ia^\"'  ^ 


mil 


Fig.  530.  —  Pheronema  Annae.     §• 


Fig.  531  6.    {, 


Fig.  531  a. 
Mt^nified. 


Fig.  531  c.     Greatly  magnified. 
Figs.  531  a,  531  b,  531  c.  Spicules  of  Holtenia  Pourtalesii.     (Schmidt.) 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. SPONGES. 


175 


beautiful  specimens  collected  off  Frederichstsed  in  180  to  208 
fathoms,  in  thick  globigerina  ooze.  A  fine  Holtenia  Pourta- 
lesil  (Figs.  531,  531  a,  531  6,  531  c)  was  collected  byPourtales 
off  Sand  Key,  in  depths  varying  from  184  to  324  fathoms. 

The   group    of    Lithistidae,    as    defined   by   Zittel,   includes 
sponges,  formerly  united  with  the  Hexactinellidse,  characterized 


Fig.  532.  —  Vetulina  stalactites.     Greatly  magnified.     (Schmidt.) 

by  their  connected  calcareous  spicules  (Fig.  532),  not  built  upon 
the  three-axis  type,  but  forming  an  apparently  irregular  maze. 

The  majority  of  the  specimens  of    Vetulina  stalactites  (Fig. 
533)  are  thick,  undulating  sheets,  closely  perforated  with  irreg- 


Rg.  ."533. —Vetulina  stalactites.     |. 

ularly  placed  pores.     The  arrangement  of  the  calcareous  skele- 
ton recalls  to  a  certain  extent  that  of  the  Hexactinellidse.     The 


176 


THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE.' 


genus  Vetulina  was  previously  known  only  from  the  Jura ;  it 
was  quite  commonly  dredged  off  Barbados  in  100  fathoms.  An 
allied  sponge,  from  292  fathoms  off  Morro  Light,  Havana,  is 
the  little  pear-shaped  Collinella  inscripta  (Fig.  534),  of  which 
the  fossil  precursor  may  have  been  Trachysycon.  Resembling 
Sulcastrella  clausa  (Fig.  535),  dredged  off'  Sand  Key  in  129 


Fig.   53i.  —  Collinella  inscripta.     J.  Rg.  535.  —  Sulcastrella  clausa.     f . 

fathoms,  are  a  number  of  cretaceous   sponges  to  which  Zittel 
has  given  the  name  of  Astrobolia. 

Cup-shaped  sponges  having  bunches  of  spicules  scattered  over 
the  surface,  like  Setidium  (Fig.  536),  are  unusual  among  the 


Fig.  536.  —  Setidium  obtectum. 


Lithistidse.  An  interesting  lithistid  is  a  small  form,  Tremauli- 
dium  yeminum  (Fig.  537),  in  which  the  pores  are  replaced  by 
an  inward  tubular  extension  of  the  cuticle. 


Kg.  537.  —  Tremanlidinih  geminum.    \- 


Fig.  541.  —  Cladorhiza  concreseens.     ^. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES.  SPONGES. 


177 


To  the  group  of  Tetractinellidse  belongs  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  of  the  deep-sea  sponges,  Tisi- 
phonia  fenestrata  (Fig.  538),  of  very  vari- 
able appearance,  with  one  or  more  afferent 
openings.  These  are  specially  protected  in 
the  allied  FcmgophUina  submersa  (Figs. 
539,  539  «)  by  a  tuft,  which  serves  to  fix  it 
loosely  in  the  mud.    Closely  allied  to  Loven's        '^nestmta!^'^^.""^ 


Fig.  539. 


Fangophilina  sabmersa.     ^. 


Fig.  539  a. 


Hynlonema  horeale  is  Stylorhiza  stipitata.  (Fig.  540.)  Frag 
ments  and  moderately  complete  specimens  of 
Cladorhiza  (Fig.  541)  were  not  uncommon  in 
the  deeper  dredgings  of  the  "  Blake."  They 
are  sponges  with  a  long  stem  ending  in  rami- 
fying roots  deeply  sunk  in  the  mud.  The 
stem  has  nodes  with  four  to  six  club-shaped 
appendages.  As  Thomson  has  noticed,  they 
evidently  often  cover,  like  bushes,  extensive 
tracts  of  the  bottom. 

Among  the  Monactinellidae  we  may  men- 
tion Rhizochalina,  which  grows  up  between 
masses  of  coral  and  tubes  of  annelids,  so  as 
to  be  freely  washed  by  water  ;  also  a  very 
graceful   branching   form,  Phakellia   tenax. 


Fig.  540.  —  Stylorhiza 
stipitata.     %. 


178  THREE    CRUISES    OF    THE    "  BLAKE." 

(Fig.  542.)     Nearly  all  the  specimens  of  Crihrella  hospitalis 


*  Pig.  542.  —  Phakellia  tenax.    |. 


'"ii 


u«.iM.a./^ 


Fig.  543.  —  Blind  Isopod 
parasitic  of  Cribrella 
hospitalis,  magnified. 
(Schmidt.) 


are  occupied  by  a  parasitic  blind  isopod.    (Fig.  543.)    Schmidtia 
awZo/?om  (Fig.  544)  represents  a  widely  distributed  West  Indian 


Fig.   544.  —  Schmidtia  aulopora.    ^. 


CHARACTERISTIC    DEEP-SEA    TYPES. 


SPONGES. 


179 


form  :   a  thick,  coarse,  smooth  sheet,  with  stout  branches,  either 
round  or  angular. 

One  of  the  most  abundant  sponges 
is  the  small  Radiella  sol  (Fig.  545), 
which  extends  to  over  1,000  fathoms 
in  depth.  Its  general  appearance  is  that 
of  a  segment  of  a  sphere  surrounded  by 
a  fringe  of  needles,  with  a  layer  of  larger 
needles   radiating   from  the    centre    of  '  "^ 

the  disk  and  forming  the  base.  Fi^.  545.  _  Kadieiia  sol.  f 


LIST   OF  FIGURES. 


Introduction. 
FiauBB  Vol.  I.    page 

A.     Track  of  the  "  Blake  "  (U.  S.  C.  S.^).     In  pocket  at  end  of  Vol.  I. 
13.     Morro   Light  and   Castle,    Havana,   with  modern   limestone   terrace   in 

foreground,  from  a  photograph         .......      xii 

C     Western  Slope  of  St.  Kitts,  from  a  photograph  .         .         ...         .       xv 

D.  Pitons  of  St.  Lucia,  from  a  photograph xvii 

E.  Kingstown,  St.  Vincent,  from  a  photograph xviii 


gsbee) 


I.     Equipment  of  the  "  Blake."     (Figs.  1-33.) 

Frontispiece.    U.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  Steamer  "  Blake  "  (U.  S.  C.  S.) 

1.  Brooke's  detacher  (Sigsbee)      ..... 

2.  Sir  William  Thomson's  sounding  machine  (Thomson) 
Sigsbee's  sounding  machine  (Sigsbee) 
Sigsbee' s  sounding  machine,  profile  (Sigsbee)    . 
Sigsbee's  sounding  machine,  end  view  (Sigsbee) 
Sigsbee's  detacher  and  Belknap  sounding  cylinder  (Sigsbee) 
Section  of  Fig.  6  (Sigsbee)        .... 
Belknap's  cylinder  detached  from  shot  (Sigsbee) 
Comparative  size  of  hemp  and  wire  used  for  sounding  (S: 
Sounding  lead  with  Stellwagen  cup  (Sigsbee) 
Miller-Casella  thermometer,  ^    •       . 
Negretti-Zambra  thermometer,  Italian  model 
Siemens' s  sinker  and  resistance  coil  (Bartlett,  U.  S.  C.  S 
Wheatstone's  Bridge  (Bartlett,  U.  S.  C.  S.)      . 
Siemens's  deep-sea  thermometer  (Bartlett,  U.  S.  C.  S.) 
Hilgard's  salinometer  (Sigsbee)         .... 
Sigsbee's  water  cup  (Sigsbee)   ..... 
Section  of  Sigsbee's  water  cup  (Sigsbee) 
Mode  of  attachment  of  cups  and  thermometer  (Sigsbee) 
Miller-Casella  thermometer  in  protecting  case,  with  Sigsbee's  attack 

ment  (Sigsbee) 
O.  F.  MUller's  dredge  (Thomson) 
"  Blake  "  dredge  frame 
"Blake  "dredge 
Bar  and  tangles 
"  Blake  "  trawl  (Sigsbee) 
"Blake  "trawl 


3. 

4. 

o. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 

21. 

22. 
23. 
24. 
25. 
26. 

^  The  authority  from  which  the  figure  is  derived  is  inserted  in  parentheses. 
United  States  Coast  Survey. 


3 

4 
6,7 
7 
8 
10 
10 
10 
12 
12 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
21 
23 
23 
23 

23 
24 
24 
24 

25 

26,27 

26 

U.  S.  C.  S.  = 


182  LIST    OF    FIGURES. 

FiGUBE  Vol.  I.    page 

27.  Comparative  size  of  steel  and  hemp  dredging  ropes  (Sigsbee)  ...       28 

28.  Accumulator  (Sigsbee) 31 

29.  Deck  of   "  Blake,"  showing  winding  reel,  and  wuiding  engine,  facing 

bow,  dredging  boom,  ready  for  dredging  (Sigsbee)         .         .         30,  31 
29a.     "Blake"  deck  looking  aft,  ready  for  dredging,  reeling  engine,  drum, 

leading  block  (Sigsbee) 32,  33 

30.  Plan  of  deck  of  "Blake"  (Sigsbee) 33 

31.  Scoop  net  .............       35 

32.  Tow  net 35 

33.  Sigfsbee's  gravitating  trap  (Sigsbee) 36 

III.     The  Florida  Reefs.     (Figs.  34-54.) 

34.  Straits  of  Florida,  from  Coast  Survey  charts    ......       52 

35.  Distant  mangrove  islands  seen  from  Mangrove  Beach  north  of  slaughter 

house.  Key  West .54 

36.  Coral  breccia 54 

37.  Coral  oolite .       54 

38.  Map  of  the  Tortugas,  from  Coast  Survey  charts      .....       58 

39.  Barbados  terraces      ...........       65 

40.  Sections  across  the  Peninsula  of  Florida 64,  65 

41.  Sections  across  the  Florida  Reefs,  as  numbered  on  Fig.  34        ...       66 

42.  Coral  rock  beach,  north  of  Fort  Taylor,  exposed  to  the  action  of  waves 

of  channel  between  outer  reef  and  Key  West         .         .         .  68,  69 

43.  Lagoon  formed  by  promontories  and  low  islands  covered  with  mangroves, 

northeast  shore  of  Key  West  Island 70,  71 

44.  Alacran    Reef,    Marquesas   Keys,    and    sections    across    the    reef   and 

keys 72,73 

45.  Pelagic  Porites  embryo,  greatly  magnified 74 

46.  Terraces  near  Fort  Charles  Light  House,  Barbados 79 

47.  Madrepora  prolifera  (Agassiz) 80,  81 

48.  Porites  clavaria  (Agassiz)  .         .         '. 82 

49.  Udotea  flabellata  (Agassiz) 82,  83 

50.  Halimeda  tri^ens  (Agassiz) 82,  83 

51.  Madrepora  palmata  (Agassiz) 84,  85 

52.  Rhipidigorgia  flabellum  (Agassiz)      .         .         .         .         .         . '        .  86,  87 

53.  Coral  sand  beach  south  of  Navy  Depot,  Key  West  .         .         .         .  88,  89 

54.  Orbicella  annularis  (Agassiz)    . 88 

IV.    Topography  of  the  Eastern  Coast  of  the  North  American  Conti- 
nent.    (Figs.  55-61.) 

55.  Atlantic  basin,  along  Eastern  United   States,  from   model  constructed 

by  the  U.  S.  Coast  Survey  and  Hydrographic  Office        ...       94 

56.  Contour  map  of  the   western  part  of  the  North  Atlantic,  U.  S.  Coast 

Survey  and  Hydrographic  Office 94,  95 

57.  Contour  map  of  the   Caribbean  Sea,   prepared  from  data  furnished  by 

the  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office,  based  on  the  deep-sea  soundings 
of  the  U.  S.  C.  S.  S.  "Blake"  and  the  U.  S.  F.  C.  S.  "Alba, 
tross" 98,99 

58.  Contour  map  of  the  Windward  Islands   and   the   adjacent   sea    (U.    S. 

C.S) 100 

59.  Contour  map  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (U.  S.  C.  S.) 102 


LIST    OF    FIGURES.  183 

Figure  Vol.  I.  paob 

60.  Contour  map  of  the  Gulf  of  Maine  (U.  S.  C.  S.) 103 

61.  Contour  chart  of  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic,  U.  S.  Hydrographic  Of- 

fice    108 

VI.    The  Permanence  of  Continents  and  of  Oceanic  Basins.    (Fig.  62.) 
Geological  map  of  the  Eastern  United  States,  after  C.  H.  Hitch- 
cock          129 

62.  Archaean  map  of  North  America  (Dana) 130 

IX.    The  Pelagic  Fauna  and  Flora.     (Figs.  63-139.) 

63.  Arachnactis,  embryo  of  Edwardsia,  ^ 172 

64.  Asteracanthion,  starfish  Pluteus,  greatly  magnified 172 

64  a.     Strongylocentrotus,  sea-urchin  Pluteus,  greatly  magnified      .         .         .  172 

65.  Cyphonautes,  embryo  of  Bryozoon,  greatly  magnified        ....  172 

66.  Littorina  embryo,  lj«. 172 

67.  Embryo  of  loligo,  ^ 172 

68.  Toruaria,  embryo  of  Balanoglossus,  greatly  magnified      ....  173 

69.  Pilidium,  larva  of  Nemertean,  greatly  magnified 173 

70.  Leucodora  larva,  greatly  magnified 173 

71.  Polygordius  larva,  ^^ 173 

72.  Dactylopus  larva,  greatly  magnified  .         .         .         .         .        .         .         .  173 

73.  Barnacle,  Balanus  larva,  greatly  magnified 174 

74.  Squilla  embryo,  \^ 174 

75.  Hermit  crab,  Pagurua  larva,  greatly  magnified         .....  174 

76.  Peneus  embryo,  greatly  magnified 174 

77.  Pelagic  fish  egg,  \^ 175 

78.  Plagusia.     Pelagic  symmetrical  embryo  of  transparent  flounder,  ^  .         .  175 

79.  Rhombodichthys,  flounder  stage  of  Plagusia,  \         .         .         .         .         .176 

80.  Embryo  fish,  with  lateral  organs,  ^^^ 176 

81.  Phronyna,  f 176 

82.  Leptocephalus,  f 177 

83.  Polyclonia  frondosa,  \  (Agassiz) 178 

84.  Copepod,  greatly  magnified 178 

85.  Mysis,  f 179 

86.  Porpita,  f 180 

87.  Physalia  Arethusa,  Portuguese  man-of-war,  ^  (Agassiz)    ....  181 

88.  Lepas  anatifa,  floating  barnacle,  slightly  reduced 182 

89.  Agalma  elegans,  ^  (Fewkes) 182 

90.  Cunina  discoides,  magnified 182 

91.  Velella  mutica,  f 183 

92.  Pterophysa  grandis,  ^  (Fewkes) 184 

93.  Linerges  mercurius,  | .  186 

94.  Glossocodon  tenuirostris,  magnified 186 

96.     Fourth  stage  of  Glossocodon  tenuirostris  larva,  greatly  magnified     .         .  186 

96.  Sixth  stage  of  Glossocodon  tenuirostris  larva,  greatly  magnified       .         .  186 

97.  Janthina,  slightly  reduced 186 

98.  Glaucus,  enlarged 186 

99.  Hyalea,  f  .         .         . 187 

100.  Atlanta,  ^ 187 

101.  Styliola,  f 188 

102.  Pleuropus,  X^- 188 


184  LIST    OF    FIGURES. 

FiGUEB                                                                                                                                          Vol.  I.  paok 

103.  Tiedemannia,  \ 188 

104.  Doliolum,  Y>  from  Newport   . 188 

105.  Doliolum,  f ,  from  Florida 188 

106.  Doliolum,  ^,  from  Florida,  with  well-developed  zobids    ....  189 

107.  Pyrosoma,  ^ 189 

108.  Appendicularia,  greatly  magnified  .           .......  189 

109.  House  of  Appendicularia,  greatly  magnified    ......  189 

110.  Solitary  form  of  Salpa  Caboti,  ^^- 189 

111.  Chain  of  Salpa  Caboti,  somewhat  enlarged      ......  190 

112.  Firoloidea,  ^ 191 

113.  Argonauta,  |  (Verrill) 191 

114.  Spirula  Peronii,  j 191 

115.  Shell  of  Argonauta,  |  (Verrill) 191 

116.  Sagitta,  ^ 192 

117.  Tomopteris,  f 192 

118.  Nebalia,  f 193 

119.  Globigerina  bulloides,  from  the  surface,  i-^"  (Challenger)        .         .         .  194 

120.  Pterocanium  charybdeum,  highly  magnified  (Miiller)      ....  195 

121.  Hialomma,  ^ 195 

122.  Sphse-rozoum,  i^ 195 

123.  Halobates  wuUerstorffi,  \  (Challenger) 179 

124.  Hastigerina  pelagica,  -\5.  (Challenger)     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  196 

125.  Noctiluca,  magnified 197 

126.  Eucope  diaphana,  | 197 

127.  Lizzia  grata,  magnified 197 

128.  Mnemiopsis  Leidyi,  somewhat  reduced 199 

129.  Zoea  of  Carcinus,  greatly  magnified        .......  206 

130.  Panopus  embryo,  greatly  magnified 206 

131.  Zoea  of  Porcellana,  f       . 206 

132.  Pelagic  refuse,  magnified 207 

133.  Trichodesmium  erythrseum,  | 209 

134.  Coccosphere,  ^^  (Challenger) 209 

135.  Rhabdosphere,  1^  (Challenger) 209 

136.  Gulf-weed,^ 210 

137.  Velella  mutica,  vascular  canal  filled  with  yellow  cells  (liver  cells), 

magnified 214 

137  a.     Single  yellow  cell,  magnified 214 

138.  Velella  medusa,  with  yellow  cells,  magnified 215 

139.  Phronima  sedentaria,  in  its  Doliolum  house,  f 216 

X.    Temperatures  of  the  Caribbean,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Western  At- 
lantic.    (Figs.  140-167.) 

140.  Bottom  temperatures.  Western  North  Atlantic,  J.  R.  Bartlett,  U.  S.  N. 

(U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office) 216,  217 

141.  Temperature  sections  (curves) 217 

142.  Bottom  temperatures  of  the  Atlantic  (U.  S.  Hydrographic  Office)          .  218 

Figs.  143-167.    Temperature  Sections  (U.  S.  C.  S.). 

143.  Campeche  Bank,  Yucatan,  to  Cape  San  Antonio 219 

144.  Virgin  Gorda  to  Sombrero 221 

145.  Point  Rosalie,  Dominica,  to  Point  du  Diable,  Martinique        .         .         .  222 


LIST    OF    FIGURES. 


185 


FlODBB 

146. 
147. 
148. 
149. 
150. 
151. 
152. 
153. 
154. 
155. 
15G. 
157. 
158. 
159. 
160. 
161. 
162. 
163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 


168. 
169. 
170. 

171. 

172. 


173. 
174. 

175. 
176. 


177. 

178. 
179. 
180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 
184. 


Salines  Point,  Martinique,  to  Point  Hardy,  St.  Lucia 
Cape  Moule  k  Chique,  St.  Lucia,  to  Tarratce  Pt.,  St.  Vincent 
Point  P2spada,  San  Domingo,  to  Point  Jiguero,  Porto  Rico 
Guanos  Point,  Cuba,  to  Tortuga  Island,  San  Domingo 
Morant  Point,  Jamaica,  to  Cape  Tiburon,  San  Domingo  . 

Cape  Cruz,  Cuba,  to  Pedro  Bank 

Santiago  de  Cuba  to  Morant  Point,  Jamaica    . 

Isle  of  Pines,  Cuba,  to  Grand  Cayman  and  Pedro  Bank  . 

Campeche  Bank,  Yucatan,  to  Loggerhead  Key  Light,  Tortugas 

Coast  of  Mexico,  south  of  Vera  Cruz,  to  Galveston  Isl.,  Texas 

Campeche  Bank,  Yucatan,  to  S.  E.  Pass  Mississippi  Delta 

Garden  Key  Light,  Tortugas,  to  Port  Muriel,  Cuba 

Cape  Florida  Light  to  Gun  Key  Light,  Great  Bahama  Bank   . 

Jacksonville,  Florida,  to  350  miles  east  of  Jacksonville  . 

North  of  Cape  Canaveral  to  120  miles  east  of  Cape  Canaveral 

South  of  Cape  Canaveral  to  150  miles  east  of  Cape  Canaveral 

Twenty  to  eighty  miles  from  Cape  Canaveral 

Off  St.  Simon's  Island,  Georgia      .  .  .         .         . 

Off  Santo  Domingo  to  275  miles  in  a  N.  E.  direction 
Bahamas  to  Bermudas     ........ 

Forty  miles  north  of  Cape  Hatteras  to  110  miles  east  of  same 
Off  Montauk  Point  to  the  Bermudas      ..... 


Vol.  I.  PAOB 
.  222 
.  223 
.  223 
.  225 
.  225 
.  226 
.  227 
228,  229 
230,  231 
228,  229 
230,  231 
.  231 
.  232 
.  233 
.  233 
.  233 
.  234 
.  235 
.  236 
.  237 
.  237 
.    238 


XI.     The  Gulk  Stream.     (Figs.  168-176.) 

Surface  temperature  of  the  Atlantic  in  March  (Kriimmel)     .         .         .     241 
Surface  temperature  of  the  Atlantic  in  September  (Kriimmel)        .         .     243 
Temperature  section  Sambro   Island,  Halifax,  to   St.  Thomas  (Chal- 
lenger)         244 

Ideal   temperature  section  from  the   north   to  the   south  pole   (J.  J. 

Wild) 246 

Oceanic   circulation,  map   of  the  17th   century,  from  Athanasii   Kir- 
cheri,  E.  Soc.  Jesu  Mundus  subterraneus  editio  tertia,  Amste- 

lodami,  1678 251 

Franklin's  chart  of  the  Gulf  Stream  (Kohl) 262 

Chart  of  the  Gulf  Stream  showing  its  axis  and  limits  from  1845-1860 

(U.  S.  C.  S.) 253 

Temperature  section,  Sandy  Hook  to  the  Bermudas  (Challenger)    .         .     253 
Chart  showing  "Blake"  Plateau  and  velocity  of  Gulf  Stream  (U.  S. 

C.  S.,  J.  R.  Bartlett,  U.  S.  N.) 259 

XII.    Submarine  Deposits.     (Figs.  177-192.) 

Spherule  of  bronzite,  Y,  from  3,500  fathoms.  Central  Pacific  (Chal- 
lenger)           262 

Black  spherule,  ^  (Challenger) 263 

Spherule  coated  with  magnetite,  ^  (Challenger)    .         .         .         .        ,  263 

Pteropod  ooze,  f  (Murray  and  Renard) 264 

Globigerina  ooze,  \<i  (Murray  and  Renard) 265 

Globigerina  slab,  Y,  off  Alligator  Reef 265 

Radiolarian  ooze,  7^^  (Murray) 266 

Diatom  ooze,  ^s>.  (Murray) 266 


186  LIST    OF    FIGURES. 

FiocBE  Vol.  I.  page 

185.  Scalpellum  Darwinii,  attached  to  manganese  nodule,  \  (Challenger)       .  268 

186.  Shark's  tooth,  Oxyrhina  (Challenger) 268 

187.  Ear-bone,  Zyphius,  2,375  fathoms  (Challenger) 268 

188.  Section  of  manganese  nodule  showing  tympanic  bone  of   Mesoplodon, 

2,600  fathoms  (Challenger) 269 

189.  Concretion,  333  fathoms,  from  Blake  station  317,  f  ....  276 

190.  Modern  greensand,  142  fatlioms,  from  Blake  station  314,  ^^  '         •  278 

191.  Map  showing  distribution  of  bottom  deposits 286 

192.  Rock  from  Pourtalfes  Plateau  .  287 

XIII,    The  Physiology  of  Deep-Sea  Life.     (Figs.  193,  194.) 

193.  Bunsen's  apparatus,  as  modified  by  Jacobsen  and  Behrens  (Voringen 

exp.) 295 

194.  Map  of  specific  gravity  of  sea-water  of  the  Western  North  Atlantic 

(Buchanan)  .• 299 


XV.  Sketches  of  the  Characteristic  Deep-Sea   Types.  —  Fishes.     (Figs. 

195-224.) 

FlGUBB  *Nfc, 

195.  Sternoptyx  diaphana,  ^   . 

196.  Cyclothone  lusca,  {  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

197.  Monolene  atrimana,  about  \    . 

198.  Barathronus  bicolor,  about  ^    . 

199.  Barathrodemus  manatinus,  about  f 

200.  Aphyonus  mollis,  about  | 

201.  Ophidium  cerviimm,  about  ^  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

202.  Macrurus  caribbaeus,  about  f  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

203.  Bathygadus  arcuatus,  |  (U.  S.  F.  C.)       . 

204.  Phyeis  Chesteri,  I  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

205.  Bregmaceros  atlanticus,  ^ 

206.  Plectromus  suborbitalis,  \  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

207.  Callionymus  Agassizii,  about  ^ 

208.  Chiasmodon  niger,  about  ^  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

209.  Peristedium  longispatha,  about  ^ 

210.  Nest  of  Pterophryne  in  Gulf-weed,  about  ^ 

211.  Antennarius,  §  .         .         . 

212.  Alepocephalus  Agassizii  . 

213.  Halosaurus  macrochir,  ^  . 

214.  Chauliodes  Sloani,  ^\  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

215.  Ipnops  Murrayi,  about  \ 

216.  Bathysaurus  Agassizii,  about  ^ 

217.  Bathypterois  quadrifilis,  about  | 

218.  Benthosaurus  grallator,  ^ 

219.  Scopelus  Mulleri,  \  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

220.  Malacosteus  niger,  \ 

221.  Synaphobranchus  pinnatus,  ^  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

222.  Nemichthys  scolopaceus,  \  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 

223.  Nettastoma  procerum,  \ 

224.  Gastrostomus  Bairdii,  ^  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 


Vol.  II 

.      PAGE 

.        22 

22 

24 

25 

25 

25 

26 

26,27 

26,  27 

26,  27 

.       27 

28 

29 

29 

30 

31 

31 

32,  33 

32,  33 

32,  33 

.       32 

32,  33 

.      32 

32,  33 

.      33 

.      35 

M,3o 

34,35 

34,35 

34,35 

LIST    OF    FIGURES. 


187 


Figure 

XVI. 

225. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229. 
230. 
231. 
232. 
233. 
234. 
235. 
236. 
237. 
238. 
239. 
240. 
241. 
242. 
243. 
244. 
245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253. 
254. 
255. 
256. 
257. 
258. 
259. 


Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Crustacea. 


rds)  . 
I.  Smith) 
f  (S.  I.  Smith) 


Anomalopiis  frontalis,  ^'f^  (Alph.  Milne-Edwards) 

Anisonotus  curvirostris,  §  (A.  Milne-Edwards) 

Pisolanibrns  nitidus,  |  (A.  Milne-Edwards)     . 

Micropanope  pugilator,  l^^  (A.  Milne-Edwards) 

Acanthocarpus  bispinosus,  ^  (A.  Milne-Edwards) 

Cyclodorippe  nitida,  |  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Cyclodorippe  nitida,  front  view,  \  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Lithodes  Agassizii,  ^  (S.  I.  Smith)  . 

Xylopagurus  rectus,  \  (A.  Milne-Edwards)     . 

Xylopagurus  rectus  in  its  house,  \  (A.  Milne-Edwa 

Catapagurus  Sharreri,  with  epizoanthus  house,  |  (S 

Catapagurus  Sharreri,  with  house  in  base  of  actinia 

Munidopsis  rostrata,  \  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Munida,  \  (S.  I.  Smith)  .... 

Pentacheles  sculptus,  |  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Nephropsis  Agassizii,  ^  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Phoberus  cfecus,  ^  (A.  Milne-Edwards)  . 

Glyphocrangon  aculeatus,  \  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Sabinea  princeps,  i  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Heterocarpus  cariiiatus,  ^  (S.  I.  Smith)  . 

Nematocarcinus  ensiferus,  ^\^  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Acanthephyra  Agassizii,  i  (S.  I.  Smith)  . 

Meningodora,  \  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Benthoecetes  Bartletti,  \  (S.  I.  Smith) 

Gnathophausia  Zoea,  2  (A.  Milne-Edwards) 

Syscenus  infelix,  about  ij^  (Harger) 

Rocinela  oculata,  \  (Harger)  . 

Bathynomus  gigauteus,  ^  (A.  Milne-Edwards) 

Epimeria  loricata,  f  (S.  1.  Smith)     . 

Colossendeis  colossea,  f  (E.  B.  Wilson)   . 

Scseorhynchus  armatus,  profile,  legs  omitted,  \  (E.  B.  Wilson) 

Scfeorhynchus  armatus,  \  (E.  B.  Wilson) 

Scalpellum  regium,  |  (Hoek)  . 

Verruca  incerta,  |  (Hoek)       ,         .         , 

Cypris,  greatly  magnified 


VOIi.    II.      PAGE 

(Figs.  225-259.) 

.      37 

38,39 
38 
38 
38 
39 
39 

40,41 
40 
40 
41 
42 

42,43 
43 

42,43 
44 

44,45 
45 
45 
46 

46,47 
46 
47 
47 

48,  4D 
48 
48 

48,49 
49 
49 

50,51 

50,51 

.  50 
50 
51 


XVII.    Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Worms.     (Figs.  260-273.) 

260.  Hyalinoecia  in  its  semi-transparent  tube 52 

261.  Tubes  of  Diopatra  Eschriehtii,  |  (Ehlers  ^) 53 

262.  Tube  of  Diopatra  glutinatrix 53 

263.  Tube  of  Hyalopomatus  Langerhansi,  l 53 

264.  Maldane  cucuUigera,  | 54 

265.  Cirratulus  melanaeanthus,  f 54 

266.  Amphinome  Pallasii,  | 54 

267.  Sthenelais  simplex,  ^^^ •      .         .54 

268.  Anterior  portion  of  Rhamphobrachium  Agassizii,  ^  ....       55 

269.  Eunice  conglomerans  in  its  paper-like  tube,  |  .         ,         .         .         .         .55 

270.  Diopatra  glutinatrix,  2^6. 56 

271.  Anterior  part  of  Buskiella  abyssorum,  ^  (Mcintosh)        ....       66 
^  The  drawings  of  Annelids  were  all  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  Professor  Ehlers. 


188  LIST    OF    FIGURES. 

FiouEB  Vol.  II.    page 

272.  Pomalostegus  stellatus,  ^ 57 

273.  Hyalopoinatus  Langerhansi,  ^ 57 

XVIII.     Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types. — Mollusks.     (Figs.  274-337.) 

Cephalopods. 

274.  Opisthoteuthis  Agassizii,  about  \  (Verrill)       .         .         .         .       * .         .58 

275.  Nectoteuthis  Pourtalesii,  f  (Verrill)         ...'....       59 

276.  Mastigoteuthis  Agassizii,  ^  (Verrill) 59 

277.  Eledone  verrucosa,  ^  (Verrill) 60 

278.  Alloposus  mollis,  f  (Verrill) 60 

279.  Benthoteuthis,  f  (Verrill) 61 

280.  Spirula,  ^-^  (Huxley) 61 

281.  Architeuthis  princeps,  ^  (Verrill) 62,  63 

Gasteropods  and  Lamellihranchs. 

282.  Pleurotoma  (Ancistrosyrinx)  elegans,  |  (Dall  i)      .         .         .         .         .66 

283.  Pleurotoma  subgrunclifera,  about  \ 66 

284.  Dentalium  perlongum,  \ 67 

285.  Calliostoma  aurora,  |- 68 

286.  Gaza  superba,  ^^    • 68 

287.  Leptothyra  induta,  { 69 

288.  Pleurotomaria  Adansoniana,  | 69 

289.  Pleurotomaria  Quoyaua,  ^        .  .         .         .         .         .         .         .•        .       69 

290.  Margiuella  Watsoni,  f 70 

291.  Ringicula  leptocheila,  \ .70 

292.  Cancellaria  Smitbii,  f 70 

293.  Mitra  Swainsoni,  f 70 

294.  Typhis  longicornis,  \ 70 

295.  Triforis  longissimus,  f 71 

296.  Siliquaria  modesta,  i^ 71 

297.  Vermetus  erectus,  i^^- 71 

298.  Pecten  (Amusium)  Dalli,  \ 72 

299.  Pecten  phrygium,  \ 72 

300.  Cetoconcba  bulla,  \ 72 

301.  Cetoconcba  bulla,  interior  of  valve,  | 72 

302.  Cetocboncha  elongata,  \ 72 

303.  Tindaria  cytherea,  l^ 72 

304.  Cardium  peramabilis,  f 72 

305.  Modiola  polita,  | 73 

306.  Cuspidaria  microrhina,  \  .........       73 

307.  Cuspidaria  microrhina,  valve  seen  from  the  hinge,  ^        .         .         .         .74 

308.  Verticordia  elegantissima,  \ 74 

309.  Verticordia  perversa,  ^-     ..........       74 

310.  Bushia  elegans,  f 74 

311.  Meiocardia  Agassizii,  l^^ 74 

312.  Vesicomya  venusta,  i^^ 75 

Brachiopods. 

313.  Terebratula  cubensis  attached  to  piece  of  coral,  \  (Davidson)  .         .       76 

314.  Terebratula  cubensis,  interior  of  valve,  ^|^  (Davidson)  ...       76 

315.  Waldheimia  floridana,  \  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .76 

^  Mr.  Dall  has  supervised  the  drawings  of  the  Gasteropods  and  Lamellihranchs. 


LIST    OF    FIGURES. 


189 


FiouRB                                                                                                                                         Vol.  II.  pao» 

316.  Waldheimia  floridana,  interior  of  valve,  \ 76 

317.  Terebratulina  Cailleti,  \  (Davidson) 77 

318.  Terebratula  caput-serpentis,   one  valve  removed,   showing  arms,   ^\^ 

(Davidson) 77 

319.  Platydia  anomioides,  |  (Davidson) 77 

320.  Platydia  anomioides,  one  valve  removed,  showing  arms,  I  (Davidson)     .  77 

321.  Crania  Ponrtalesii,  ^^  (Dall) 77 

322.  Discina  atlantica,  f  (Verrill) 77 

Bryozoa. 

Crisia  denticulata,  f 78 

Crisia  denticulata,  magnified  (Smitt) 78 

Diastopora  repens,  ^..........78 

Diastopora  repens,  iiiagnifted  (Smitt) 78 

Farciminaria  delicatissima,  \  (Busk)         .......  78 

Farciminaria  delicatissima,  magnified  (Busk)        .....  78 

Membranipora  canariensis,  ^^^ 79 

Celliilaria  cervicornis,  |  ..........  79 

Cellularia  cervicornis,  magnified  (Smitt) 79 

Caberea  retiformis,  magnified  (Smitt) 80 

Vincularia  abyssicola,  |   ..........  80 

Escharipora  stellata,  ^      . 80 

80 


323. 

323  a. 
324. 

324  a. 
326. 

325  a. 
326. 
327. 
327  a. 
328. 
329. 
330. 
330  a. 
331. 
331a. 
332. 

332  a. 
333. 

333  a. 
334. 
335. 
336. 
337. 


Escharipora  stellata,  magnified  (Smitt) 

Tessadroma  boreale,  s      .         .         . 81 

Tessadroma  boreale,  magnified  (Smitt) 81 

Hippothoa  biaperta,  |       ..........  81 

Hippothoa  biaperta,  greatly  magnified  (Smitt)      .....  81 

Cellepora  margaritacea,  | 82 

Cellepora  margaritacea,  magnified  (Smitt) 82 

Biflustra  macrodon,  ^       ..........  82 

Porina  subsulcata,  ^ 82 

Retepora  reticulata,  \ 82 

Heteropora,  | 83 


XIX.    Charactewstic  Dekp-Sea  Types.  —  Echinoderms.    (Figs.  338-421  a.) 

Holothurians. 

338.  Psolus  tuberculosus,  f  (Thdel) 85 

339.  Echinocucumis  typica,  |  (Tlidel) 85 

340.  Stichopus  natans,  J  (Koren  &  Danielssen) 85 

341.  Trochostoma  arcticum,  |  (Koren  &  Danielssen)      .         .         .         .         .86 

342.  Psyehropotes  longicauda,  ^  (Theel)  .         .         .         .         .         .         .86 

343.  Deima  Blakei,  f  (Thdel) 86 

344.  Benthodytes  gigantea,  |  (U.  S..  F.  C.) 87 

345.  Euphronides  cornuta,  |  (U.  S.  F.  C.) 87 

346.  Paelopatides  confundens,  f  (Th^el) 88 

347.  Ankyroderma  affine,  §  (Koren  &  Danielssen) 88 

Sea-  Urchins. 

348.  Dorocidaris  papillata,  | 89 

349.  Dorocidaris  Blakei,  f 90 

350.  Porocidaris  Sharreri,  f 90,  91 


190  LIST    OF    FIGURES. 

FiGUBB  Vol.  II.    paob 

351.  Salenia  Pattersoni,  | 90,  91 

352.  Salenia  varispina,  \  ..........       90 

353.  Salenia  Pattersoni,  denuded  test  showing  apical  system,  |        .         .         .91 

354.  Salenia  varispina,  young  specimen,  ^^-      ......         .       91 

355.  Temnechinus  maculatus,  partlj'  denuded  of  spines,  ^^     •         •         .         .92 

356.  Trigonocidaris  albida,  partly  denuded,  |  ......       92 

357.  Podocidaris  sculpta,  partly  denuded,  i^^- 92 

358.  Ccelopleurus  floridanus,  ^         .........       93 

359  a.     Asthenosoma  hystrix,  a  few  plates  of  test,  \  .....       94 

359.  Asthenosoma  hystrix,  ^    .         .         .         .         .         .         ...         .         .95 

360.  Phormosoma  placenta,  |  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .95 

361.  Aspidodiadema  antillarum,  |  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .96 

362.  Aspidodiadema  antillarum,  magnified  pedicellaria 96 

363.  Hemipedina  cubensis,  partly  denuded,  \  .         .         .         .         .         .         .97 

364.  Neolampas  rostellata,  denuded,  |     ........       97 

365.  Rhynchopygus  caribsearum,  denuded,  2-^^        ......       97 

366.  Neolampas  rostellata,  magnified  apical  system         .....       98 

367.  Macropneustes  spatangoides,  denuded,  | 98 

368.  Conolampas  Sigsbei,  \ 99 

369.  Hemiaster  zonatus,  \ 100 

370.  Hemiaster  expergitus,  denuded,  f  (Lov^n) 100 

371.  Paleopneustes  hystrix,  f  . 100 

372.  Palseotropus  Josephinse,  denuded,  profile,  f 100 

373.  Pourtalesia  miranda,  from  below,  ^ 101 

374.  Pourtalesia  miranda,  profile,  ^ 101 

375.  Ureehinus  naresianus,  from  above,  1-'|-^    .......     101 

376.  Ureehinus  naresianus,  profile,  ^^^ 101 

Starjishes. 

377.  Pentagonaster  ternalis,  |  (Perrier) .     102 

378.  Archaster  pulcher,  \  (Perrier) 103 

379.  Anthenoides  Peircei,  |  (Perrier) 103 

380.  Ctenaster  spectabilis,  disk  and  arm,  |  (Perrier) 104 

381.  Radiaster  elegans,  from  below,  f  (Perrier) 104 

382.  Zoroaster  Ackleyi,  |  (Perrier) 105 

383.  Hymenodiscus  Agassizii,  ^j^  (Perrier) 106 

384.  Hymenodiscus  Agassizii,  disk  and  base  of  arms,  from  below,  f  (Per- 

rier)    ........••••     106 

385.  Hymenodiscus  Agassizii,  magnified  spine  (Perrier)  ....     106 

386.  Archaster  mirabilis,  \  (Perrier)  ........     107 

387.  Brisinga  coronata,  disk,  base  of  arms,  and  single  arm,  f  (Sars)       .         .     108 

Ophiurans.^ 

388.  Astrophyton  ccecilia,  ^ ••         •     HO,  HI 

389.  Ophiocreas  spimdosus,  ^ 109 

390.  Ophiozona  nivea,  f  .         .      ' HO 

391.  Ophiophyllum  petilum,  ^ HO 

392.  Ophiocamax  hystrix,  f HO,  HI 

393.  Ophiopaepale  Goesiana,  ^ HI 

394.  Ophiura  Elaps,  l^f  ^ HI 

395.  Ophioeonis  miliaria,  ^ •     H2 

^  Mr.  Lyman  has  kindly  supervised  the  drawings  of  Ophiurans. 


LIST    OF    FIGURES.  191 

Figure                                                                                                                                         Vol.  II.  paok 

396.  Ophiomusium  planum,  i^        ........         .  112 

397.  Ophiomyces  frutectosus,  | 113 

398.  Ophiomastus  secuudus,  ^ 113 

399.  Sigsbeia  miiiThina,  ^         . 114 

400.  Astrocnida  isidis,  \  .         .         .         . 115 

401.  Ophiolipus  Agassizii,  ^^^ 115 

402.  Ophiohelus  umbella,  part  of  disk  and  base  of  two  arms,  f  (Lyman)         .  116 

403.  Ophiohelus  umbella,  bunch  of  umbrella-shaped  spines,  Y  (Lyman)         .  116 

Crinoids. 

404.  Metacrinus  angulatus,  -^  (Carpenter) 117 

405.  Pentacrinus  asterius,  J  (Carpenter) 116,  117 

406.  Petacrinus  stage  of  Actinometra  meridionalis,  magnified  .         .         •     117 

407.  Pentacrinus  decorus,  |  (Carpenter) 118,  119 

408.  Pentacrinus   decorus,  youngest   specimen   of   Pentacriiuis   obtained   by 

"  Blake  "  f  (Carpenter) 118 

409.  Pentacrinus  Miilleri,  f  (Carpenter) 119 

410.  Pentacrinus  Blakei,  f  (Carpenter) •      118,  119 

411.  Rhizocrinus  lofotensis,  |  (Sars  &  Carpenter) 121 

412.  Rhizocrinus  Rawsoni,  1  (Carpenter)         .......  121 

413.  Adult  llolopus  Rangi,  1/  (Carpenter) 123 

414.  Half-grown  Holopus  Rangi,  f  (Carjjenter) 123 

415.  Young  Holopus  Rangi,  Y 124 

416.  Atelecrinus,  |  (Carpenter) 124 

417.  Antedon  spinifera,  J- 125 

418.  Actinometra  pulchella,  ^  . .  126 

419.  Myzostoma  filicauda,  i^  (Von  Graff) 127 

420.  Myzostoma  Agassizii,  i^  (Von  Graff) 127 

421.  Cyst  of  Myzostoma  cysticolum,  ^  (Von  Graff) 127 

421  a.     Cyst  of  Myzostoma  cysticolum,  parasite  of  Actinometra  meridionalis, 

f  (Von  Graff) 127 

XX.    Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Acalephs.     (Figs.  422-448.) 

Ctenophorce  and  Hydromedusce. 

422.  Ptychogena  lactea,  |- 128 

423.  Ocyroe  maculata,  \  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  129 

424.  Eucharis  multicornis,  ^  (Chun)         ........  130 

425.  Dodecabostrycha  dubia,  ^         ........         •  131 

426.  Periphylla  hyacinthina,  ^  (Fewkes) 132 

427.  AtoUa  Bairdii,  |  (Fewkes) .133 

428.  Agalma  Okenii,  {  (Fewkes) 134 

429.  Gleba  hippopus,  f  (Fewkes) 134 

430.  Diphyes  acuminata,  |  (Fewkes) 135 

431.  Aglaophenia  bispinosa,  |  (AUman)  ,,,,...     136,  137 

432.  Aglaophenia  bispinosa,  magnified  corbnla  (AUman)  ....     136 

433.  Aglaophenia  bispinosa,  lower  part  of  stem  of  Fig.  431  (AUman)  .         136,  137 

434.  Cryptolaria  conferta,  \  (AUman) 136 

435.  Cryptolaria  conferta,  magnified,  fusiform  shaped  bodies  (AUman)      .     136 

436.  Cladocarpus  paradisea,  ^  (AUman) 136, 137 

437.  Hippurella  annulata,  f  (Fewkes)     .         .         .         .         .         .         •     136,  137 


192  LIST    OF   FIGURES. 

FiocBB  Vol.  II.    page 

438.  Callicarpa  gracilis,  \  (Fewkes) 136,  137 

439.  Callicarpa  gracilis,  magnified  corbula  (Fewkes)       ....      136,  137 

440.  Pleurocarpa  ramosa,  branch  modified  to  corbula,  magnified  (Fewkes)     .     137 

HydrocorallinoB. 

441.  Animal  of  Millepora  alcicornis,  ^/  (Agassiz) 138 

442.  Millepora  nodosa,  Dactylozoid  Gastrozoid,  magnified  (Moseley)      .  .  138 

443.  Millepora  alcicornis,  |  (Agassiz) 138,  139 

444.  Pliobothrus  symmetricus,  \  (Pourtal^s)  .......  139 

445.  Cryptohelia  Peircei,  part  of  branch,  ^  (Pourtalfes) 139 

445  a.     Cryptohelia  Peircei,  \  (Pourtalfes) 139 

446.  Stylaster  fllogranns,  \  (Pourtal^s) 140 

447.  Distichopora  foliacea,  \  (Pourtal^s) 140 

448.  Allopora  miniacea,  \  (Pourtalfes) 141 


XXI.    Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Polyps.     (Figs.  449-483.) 


Halcyonoids  and  Actinoids. 

449.  Umbellula  Giintheri,  1     .         .         .         . 

450.  Pennatula  aculeata,  |  (Koren  &  Danielssen) 

451.  Kophobelemnon  scabmm,  \  (Verrill) 

452.  Anthoptilum  Thomsoni,  ^  (Kolliker) 

453.  Balticina  finmarchica,  \  (Koren  &  Danielssen) 

454.  Actinauge  nexilis,  f  (Verrill)  . 

455.  Dasygorgia  Agassizii,  \  (Verrill) 

456.  Chrysogorgia,  ^        .         .         . 
456  a.     Iridogorgia  Pourtalesii,  J 

457.  Acanella  Normani,  ^ 

458.  Primnoa  Pourtalesii,  |  (Verrill) 

459.  Calyptrophora,  i      •         •         • 

460.  Sagartia  abyssicola,  f  (Verrill) 

461.  Actinauge  nodosa,  ^  (Verrill)  . 

462.  Caryophyllia  communis,  from  above,  \  (Pourtalfes) 
462  a.     Caryophyllia  comnninis,  profile,  \  (Pourtal^s) 

463.  Stenocyathus  vermiformis,  \  (Pourtalfes) 

464.  Thecocyathus  cylindraceus,  f  (Pourtalfes) 

465.  465  a,  c.     Deltocyathus  italicus,  three  varieties,  from 
465  h.     Deltocyathus  italicus,  from  below,  f  (Pourtales) 
465  d.     Deltocyathus  italicus,  profile,  f  (Pourtalfes)  . 

Paracyathus  confertus,  \  (Pourtales) 
Stephanotrochus  diadema,  \  (Pourtales) 


466. 

467. 

468. 

468  a 

469. 

470. 

471. 

472. 

473. 

474. 

475. 


Flabellum  Moseleyi,  profile,  \  (Pourtalfes) 

Flabellum  Moseleyi,  from  above  \  (Pourtales) 
Desmophyllum  Riisei,  \  (Pourtales) 
Desmophyllum  solidum,  f  (Pourtales)     . 
Rhizotrochus  fragilis,  \  (Pourtales) 
Lophohelia  prolifera,  \  (Pourtales) 

Amphihelia  rostrata,  \ 

Axohelia  mirabilis,  \  (Pourtales)     . 
Thecopsammia  socialis,  '^-^  (Pourtalfes)  . 


above,  \  (Pourtales) 


14 


142,  143 
142,143 
.  142 
142,  143 
142,  143 
14S 
143 
144 
145 
5,146 
146 
145,146 
147 
147 
148 
148 
148 
149 
149 
149 
149 
150 
150 
150 
150 
151 
151 
151 
151 
152 
153 
153 


LIST    OF   FIGURES. 


193 


Fungia  symmetrica,  |  (Pourtal^s)    . 
Diaseris  crispa,  f  (Pourtal^s)  . 
Antillia  explaiiata,  |  (Pourtalds) 
Leptonemus  discus,  |  (Challeuger) 
Haplophyllia  paradoxa,  \  (Pourtal^s) 
Haplophyllia  paradoxa,  f  (Pourtalfes) 


'^  (Schultze) 


FlGUBE 

476. 

477. 
478. 
479. 
480. 
481. 

482.  Antipathes  spiralis,  -^j^^  (Pourtales)  . 

483.  Autiphathes  columnaris,  |  (Pourtales) 

XXII.     Charactkristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Rhizopods 

484.  484  a.     Biloculina  ringens,  |  (Goes) 
484  b.     Biloculiua  ringens,  ^^  (Goes) 

485.  Biloculina  tenera,  with  expanded  pseudopodia, 

486.  Orbiculina  aduuca,  -K^  (Brady) 

487.  Orbiculina  adunca,  young,  ^^  (Brady) 

488.  Cornuspira  foliacea,  |  (Goes)  . 

489.  Astrorhiza  limicola,  ^  (Brady) 

490.  Sorosphsera  confusa,  ^^  (Brady) 

491.  491  a.     Hyperammina  elongata,  \  (GoesJ 

492.  Rhabdammina  abyssorum,  ^  (Brady) 

493.  Rhabdammina  abyssorum,  f  (Brady) 

494.  Rhabdammina  linearis,  |  (Brady)    . 

495.  495  a.     Reophax  scorpiurus,  ^  (Goes) 

496.  Thurammina  papillata,  ^  (Brady) 

497.  Ammodiscus  tenuis,  ^^  (Brady) 

498.  Cyclammina  cancellata,  5j0  (Brady) 

499.  Cyclammina  cancellata,  ^  (Brady) 

500.  Textularia  sagittula,  ^^  (Goes) 

501.  501  a.     Textularia  trochus,  |  (Goes) 

502.  502  a.     Valvulina  triangularis,  ^  (Goes) 

503.  Lagena  distoma,  ^  (Brady)    . 

504.  Nodosaria  radiciila,  ^^  (Goes) 

505.  Nodosaria  communis,  |  (Goes) 

506.  Cristellaria  crepidula,  ^^^  (Goes) 

507.  Cristellaria  calcar,  ^^  (Goes)  . 

508.  508  a.     Sagrina  dimorpha,  ^  (Goes)  . 

509.  Polymorphina  ovata,  ^-  (Brady) 

510.  Orbulina  universa,  surface,  ^^  (Challenger) 
611, 511  a,  b.     Globigerina  buUoides,  various  types  of  tests,  X^ 
512.     Orbulina  universa,  ^  (Goes)  . 

613.  Cymbalopora  buUoides,  ^  (Challenger) 

614.  Carpenteria  balaniformis,  |  (Goes)  . 

515.  515  a.     Pulvinulina  auricula,  ^  (Goes) 

516.  Pulvinulina  Menardii,  l^  (Goes) 

517.  Pulvinulina  Menardii,  ^^  (Goes)      . 

518.  Truncatulina  Ungeriana,  -^  (Goes) 

519.  Polytrema  miniaceum,  \^ 


(Figs. 


(Goes) 


XXIII.    Characteristic  Deep-Sea  Types.  —  Sponges.     (Figs.  520-645.) 


520.     Farrea  facunda,  J    . 
621.     Lefroyella  decora,  | 


Vol.  II.  PAOK 
153 
153 
154 
154 
164 
155 
155 
155 

484-519.) 

159 
159 
160 
160 
160 
161 
161 
162 
162 
162 
163 
163 
163 
164 
164 
164 
164 
164 
165 
165 
165 
166 
166 
166 
166 
166 
166 
166,  167 
167 
167 
168 
168 
169 
169 
169 
169 
169 


171 
171 


194  LIST   OF    FIGURES . 

FiauBB  Vol.  II.    page 

522.  Aphrocallistes  Bocagei,  * 172 

523.  Dactylocalyx  pumiceus,  \ .172 

524.  Regadella  phoenix,  f 173, 174 

525.  Euplectella  Jovis,  \ 173,  174 

526.  Hyalonema  Sieboldii,  | .         .         .         .173 

527.  Spicules  of  Japanese  Hyalonema,  with  encrusting  polyps,  representing 

axis  of  Gorgonia,  ^        .         .         .         •         .         .         .         .         .173 

528.  Japanese  Hyalonema,  showing  the  siliceous  cable  and  its  parasitic  po- 

lyps, i 174,  175 

529.  Asconema  setubalense,  ^  (Filhol.  "  Talisman  "  Ex.)  .         .         .     174,175 

530.  Pheronema  Annse,  | .      174,  175 

531.  Holtenia  Pourtalesii,  f 174 

531  a-531  c.     Spicules  of  Holtenia  Pourtalesii  (Schmidt) ....      174,  175 

532.  Vetulina  stalactites,  spicules  greatly  magnified  (Schmidt)       .         .         .     175 

533.  Vetulina  stalactites,  | 175 

534.  CoUinella  inscripta,  ^        .........         .     176 

535.  Sulcastrella  clausa,  f        .         .         .         •         .         •         •         •         •         .176 

536.  Setidium  obtectum,  |       .........         .     176 

537.  Tremaulidium  gemimim,  \       ........         .     176 

538.  Tisiphonia  fenestrata,  |   .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .177 

539.  Fangophilina  submersa,  §         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .177 

539  a.     Section  through  Fig.  539, 1 177 

540.  Stylorhiza  stipitata,  f       •         •         •         •         •         •         •         •         •  .177 

541.  Cladorhiza  concrescens,  \ 176,  177 

542.  Phakellia  tenax,  f 178 

543.  Blind  Isopod  parasitic  of  Cribrella  hospitalls,  magnified  (Schmidt)  .     178 

544.  Schmidtia  aulopora,  ^       .........         .     178 

545.  Radiella  sol,  | 179 


INDEX. 


Abyla  trigona,  ii.  135. 

Abyssiil  deposits,  far  from  continents,  i.  2(51. 

position  of,  i.  140. 
Abyssal  families,  offshoots  of  free  swimming, 

ii.  ;jo. 
Abyssal  fauna,  general  character  of,  ii.  2. 

Lov^n  on  derivation  of,  i.  155. 

Moseley  on  age  of,  i.  155. 

Moseley  on  derivation  of,  i.  156. 

Perrier  on  derivation  of,  i.  155. 
Abyssal  invertebrates  and  fishes,  huge  eyes 

of,  i.  307. 
Abyssal  moUusks,  enemies  of,  ii.  65. 

general  character  of,  ii.  62. 

limited  by  cold,  ii.  64. 

limited  variety  of  forms  of,  ii".  64. 

points  of  attachment  of,  ii.  64. 
Abyssal  realm,  character  of,  ii.  1. 
Abyssal  shells,  colors  of,  ii.  QS. 

delicacy  of,  ii.  63. 

ornamentation  of,  ii.  ()3. 
Acalephs,  ii.  128. 

occuiTence  of  on  the  surface,  i.  177. 

pelagic,  i.  185. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  107. 

report  on  by  J.  W-  Fewkes,  i.  xxi. 

shoals  of,  i.  186. 

swimming  near  the  bottom,  i.  202. 
Acanella  Normani,  ii.  145. 
Acanthephyra  Aga.ssizii,  ii.  46. 
Acanthocarpus  Alexandri,  ii.  .38. 
Acanthocarpns  bispinosus,  ii.  .38. 
Acanthodromia,  ii.  40. 
Acanthometridse,  i.  195. 
Accumulator,  i.  30. 
Aekley,  S.  M.,  i.  viii,  .32. 
Actinauge,  ii.  143. 
Actinauge  nodosa,  ii.  147. 
Actiniae,     Hertwig    on    yellow    cells    of,    i. 
214. 

deep-sea  attached  to  sea  wands,  ii.  143. 

incrusting  masses  of,  ii.  148. 

phosphorescence  of,  ii.  147. 


Actinoids,  ii.  142. 

color  of  deep-sea,  i.  312. 
Actinometra  meridionalis,  ii.  117,  127. 
Actinometra,  pentacrinus  stage  of,  ii.  117. 
Actinometra  pulchella,  ii.  125. 
Adamsia  a.ssociated  with  Catapagurus,  ii.  41. 
Adrians,    ' '  Ingegerd ' '  and   ' '  Gladan  ' '  Ex- 
pedition, i.  40. 
.iEgean  Sea,  Edward  Forbes  on,  i.  40. 
Agalma,  i.  121,  181. 

at  Newport,  ii.  133. 

Okenii,  ii.  133. 
Agaricia,  i.  55. 
Agassiz,  A.     Report  on  Coral  Reefs,  i.  xxi. 

Report  on  Gulf  Stream,  i.  xxi. 

Report  on  Sea-Urchins,  i.  xxi. 

Report  on  Surface  Fauna,  i.  xxi. 
Agassiz,  L.,  i.  vii,  285. 

on  Coral  Reef  of  Florida,  i.  56. 

on  movements  of  Rhizocrinus,  ii   122. 
Agassizia,  i.  159. 

Aglaophenia  bispinosa,  ii.  1.36,  137. 
Aglaophenia  crenata,  ii.  135. 
Agonidae,  ii.  30. 
Agouti,  i.  114. 
Alacran  atoll,  i.  70. 

not  due  to  subsidence,  i.  72. 
Alacran,  structure  of  reef,  i.  71. 
Alaminos,  expedition  of,  i.  2.51. 
"Albatross,"  i.  50. 
"  Albatross,"  on  Ridge  between  Santa  Cruz 

and  Porto  Rico,  i.  98,  112. 
Alepocephalus  Agassizii,  ii.  32,  33. 
Algae,  Berthold  on  bathymetrical  range  of, 
i.  312. 

calcareous,  i.  312. 

parasitic,  Cienkowsky  on,  i.  214. 
Allman,  G.  J. ,  on  deep-sea  hydroids,  i.  xxi ; 

ii.  7. 
Allopora  miniacea,  ii.  140. 
Alloposus  mollis,  ii.  60. 
Altitudes  near  shore  lines,  i.  132. 
Amblyrhynchns,  i.  115. 


196 


INDEX. 


American  continent  from  Hiironian  to  Ter- 
tiary, i.  1()6. 
Amniodiscus  tenuis,  ii.  104. 
Ampharetidae,  tubes  of,  ii.  56. 
Amphihelia  rostrata,  ii.  152. 
Amphinome  Pallasii,  ii.  54. 
Amphipods,  ii.  49. 

Smith  on  tubes  of,  ii.  53. 
Anadyomene,  i.  82. 
Anancliytidae,  i.  159  ;  ii.  100. 
Ancient  types  and  oceanic  dredgings,  i.  155. 
Anguilla,  fossil  mammals  of  caves  of,  i.  114. 
Anisonotus  curvirostris,  ii.  37,  38,  39. 
Ankyroderma  affinis,  ii.  88. 
Annelids,  bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  53. 

E.  Ehlers  report  on,  i.  xxi. 

littoral  groups  of,  ii.  53. 

parasitic  in  corals,  ii.  156. 

parasitic  on  Antipathes,  ii.  156. 
Annelid  tubes,  composition  of,  ii.  53. 

covering  large  tracts,  ii.  53. 

transported,  ii.  54. 
Anomalopus  frontalis,  ii.  37. 
Anomura,  ii.  39. 
Antarctic  regions,  Alph.  Milne-Edwards  on 

fauna  of,  i.  121. 
Antedon  Hagenii,  ii.  124. 
Antedon  Sarsii,  ii.  118. 
Antedon  spinif  era,  ii.  125. 
Antedonin,  i.  .309. 
Antennarius,  ii.  31. 
Anthenoides  Peircei,  ii-  103. 
Anthoptilum  Thomsoni,  ii.  142,  143. 
Antigua,  island  of,  i.  xix. 
Antillia  explanata,  ii.  154. 
Antillean  continent,  i.  116. 
Antipathes  eolumnaris,  ii.  155. 
Antipathes  spiralis,  ii.  155. 
Antipathidse,  ii.  155 
Antique  types,  i.  15G. 
Aphrocallistes  Bocagei,  ii.  172. 
Aphyonus  mollis,  ii.  25. 
Apiocrinidae,  ii.  116. 
Apoda,  ii.  84. 
Appendicnlaria,  i.  187. 
Arago,  i.  249. 
Arbacia,  i.  159. 
ArbaciadaB,  ii.  92. 

spines  of,  ii.  92. 
Archaster  mirabilLs,  ii.  102,  107. 
Archaster  pulcher,  ii.  103. 
Archasteridse,  ii.  102. 
Archeoeidaris^  plates  of,  ii.  96. 
Architeuthis  princeps,  ii.  62. 
Arctic  current,  Bartlett  on  southern  exten- 
sion of,  i.  279. 


Arctic  current,  course  of,  i.  121. 

influence  of,  i.  134. 
Arctic  regions,  warm  climate  of,  i.  134. 
Arctic  species,  cropping  out  of,  i.  302. 
Areas  of  depression,  i.  126. 
Areas  of  elevation,  i.  126. 
Argonauta,  i.  191. 

GiglioU  on,  i.  193. 
Argyope,  i.  193. 
Argyropelecus,  ii.  22. 
Ascidians,  ii.  77. 
Asiatic  continent,  relation  of  to  East  Indian 

Archipelago,  i.  125. 
Askonema  setubalense,  ii.  174,  1 75. 
Aspidodiadema  antillarum,  ii.  96. 
Aspidodiadema,  sheathed  pedicellariae  of,  ii. 

96. 
Aspidosiphon,  ii.  52. 
Astacidea,  ii.  43. 
Astacus  zaleucus,  i.  308. 
Astarte,  ii.  73. 

Asthenosoma,  Grube  on,  ii.  94. 
Asthenosoma  hystrix,  ii.  94,  95. 
Asthenosoma,  plates  of  test  of,  ii.  94. 

.shape  of,  ii.  94. 

sheathed  spines  of,  ii.  95. 
Astrocnida,  ii.  11.5. 
Astrocnida  isidis,  ii.  5. 
Astronyx  Loveni,  ii.  5. 
Astropecten,  ii.  103. 
Astrophytidse,  ii.  109. 
Astrophyton,  ii.  114. 

from  Baffin's  Bay,  i.  41. 

swimming  of,  i.  44. 
Astrophyton  ccecilia,  ii.  110,  111. 
Astrorhiza  limicola,  ii.  161. 
Astrorhiza,  Sundahl,  Dr.,  on,  ii.  161. 
Astroschema,  ii.  5. 
Atelecrinus,  ii.  124. 

a  larval  form  of  Comatnla,  ii.  126. 
Athorybia  formosa,  ii.  133. 
Atlanta,  i.  187,  265. 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  continents,  i.  123. 
Atlantic  and  Pacific,  former  connection  of, 

i.  92. 
Atlantic,  eastern  basin  of,  i.  242. 

hydrographic  character  of,  i.  242. 
Atlantic  ooze,  Bailey  on,  i.  45. 

composition  of,  i.  150. 
Atlantic  slope,  profile  of,  i.  134. 
Atlantic,  western  basin  of,  i.  242. 
Atlantis,  i.  126. 
Atolla  Bairdii,  ii.  132,  133. 
AtoUa  Wyvillei,  ii.  132. 
Aurelia,  i.  186. 
Austins,  the,  on  Pentacrinidae,  ii.  117- 


INDEX. 


197 


Axohelia  niirabilis,  ii.  152,  153. 
Ayres,  i.  43. 

Bache,  A.  D.,  i.  45. 

on  Gulf  Stream  in  1845,  i.  252. 
Baer,  K.  E.  v.,  on  eastern  extension  of  Gulf 

Stream,  i.  252. 
Bahama  Bank,  eastern  slope  of,  i.  90,  104. 

formation  of,  i.  69. 

land  shells  of,  i.  1 10. 

slope  of,  i.  28!S. 
Bahama  Banks,  structure  of,  i.  75. 
Bahama  plateau,  i.  75. 
Bahia  Honda,  i.  viii. 
Bailey,  i.  3. 

on  Atlantic  globigerinse,  i.  140. 

on  Atlantic  ooze,  i.  45. 

on  g^-eensand  of  Zeuglodon  limestone, 
i.  278. 
Bairtl,  S.  F. ,  U.  S.  Fish  Commissioner,  i.  50. 
B9.1ticina  iiiunarchica,  ii.  142,  143. 
Barathrodemus  manatinus,  ii.  25. 
Barathronus  bicolor,  ii.  25. 
Barbados,  island  of,  i.  xix- 

limestone  terraces  of,  i.  63. 
Bai'buda,  island  of,  i.  xix. 
Bartlett  Deep,  i.  100,  22(). 
Bartlett,  John  R.,  i.  viii. 

exploration  of  Caribbean,  i  50. 

on  current  passing  over  ridge  of  wind- 
wai'd  passage,  i.  292. 

on  deep-sea  sounding  and  dredgingj  i. 
51. 

on  path  of  warm  water  in  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  Caribbean,  i.  2.55. 

on  Pentacrinus  off   Santiago  de   Cuba, 
ii.  6. 

on  rip  off  Charleston,  i.  254. 

on  Sargassum,  i.  211. 

on   temperature   sections   of   Caribbean 
and  of  Gulf  Stream,  i.  217. 

on    temperature    sections    between   the 
West  India  Islands,  i.  218. 
Barrett  and  Andrews,  i.  43. 
Barrett,  survey  of  Alacran,  i.  70. 
Bathometer,  Siemens,  C.  W.,  i.  6. 
Bathybius,  Haeckel  on,  i,  204. 
Bathydoris  abyssorum,  ii.  62. 
Bathygadus  arcuatus,  ii.  26,  27. 
Bathymetrical   faunal   subdivisions,   i.    162, 

103. 
Bathymetrical  range,  of  corals,  ii.  11. 

of  crinoids,  ii.  10. 

of  Crustacea,  ii.  9. 

of  fishes,  ii.  8. 

of  gorgonians,  ii.  11. 


Bathymetrical  range,  of  moUnsca,  ii.  10. 

of  ophiurans,  i.  168. 

of  sponges,  ii.  11. 

of  sea-urchins,  ii.  10. 

of  stariishes,  ii.  10. 
Batliyonomus  giganteus,  ii.  48,  49. 
Bathypterois  quadrifilis,  ii.  32. 
Bathysaurus  Agassizii,  ii.  32,  33. 
Bam-  on  range  of  pelagic  animals,  i.  200. 
Behring  Strait  cuixent,  i.  243. 
Belknap,  Geo.  E.,  i.  0. 

sounding  cylinder,  i.  3. 
Bellerophon,  i.  190. 
Bernini,  Straits  of,  i.  137. 

current  flowing  north  through  the,  i.  234. 
BentlitBcetes  Bartletti,  ii.  47. 
Benthodytes  gigantea,  ii.  87. 
Benthosaurus  grallator,  ii.  32,  33. 
Benthoteuthis,  ii.  01. 

Bergh,  R.,  on  Bathydoris  abyssorum,  ii.  62. 
Bermuda  sea-serpent,  ii.  28. 
Bermudas,  not  inhabited  by  Caribs,  i.  118. 

origin  of  fauna  and  flora  of,  i.  119. 

recent  origin  of,  i.  117. 

Rein  on  the,  i.  80. 

to  West  India  islands,  ocean  bed  from, 
i.  93. 

vegetation  of,  i.  117. 
Berthold,  on  bathymeti-ical  range  of  alg^, 

i.  312. 
Beryx  splendens,  ii.  27. 
"Bibb,"  i.  51. 
Biflustra  macrodon,  ii.  82. 
Biloctilina  clay,  ii.  160. 

Pourtal^s  on,  ii.  160. 

Sars  on,  ii.  160. 
Biloculina  ringens,  ii.  159. 
Biloculina  tenera,  ii.  160. 
Bird  fauna  of  West  Indies,  i.  114. 
Birds,  effects  of  currents  on  distribution  of, 

i.  120. 
"Blake,"  i.  51. 
"  Blake,"  plan  of  deck  of,  i.  33. 

cruises  of,  i.  viii,  xi,  xix,  38- 

rich  dredgings  by,  off  the  West  India 
islands,  ii.  13. 

small  size  of,  i.  32. 
"  Blake  "  dredges,  i.  24. 
Blake  Plateau,  i.  96,  135. 

deposits  on  steep  slope  of,  i.  277. 

swept  clean,  i.  259. 
Bland,  on  land  shells  of  West  Indies,  i.  115. 
Blennies,  ii.  29. 
Blind  fishes,  i.  308. 
Blind  invertebrates,  i.  .307- 
Block  Island  soundings,  i.  272. 


198 


INDEX. 


Blue  colors,  absence  of,  i.  :]10. 
Boguslawski  on  solids  in  ocean  water,  i.  129. 
Bombay  duck,  ii.  34. 
Boring  mollusks  and  annelids,  i.  5.J. 
Bottom  deposits,    amount  of    carbonate    of 
lime  in,  i.  275. 

change  in  character  of,  i.  211. 

color  of,  i.  289. 

how  obtained,  i.  262. 

land  debris  in,  i.  291. 

north  and  south  of  Cape  Hatteras,  i.  270. 

of  Antilles,  i.  290. 

of  Caribbean,  i.  260,  288. 

of  East  Coast,  Bailey  sketch  of,  i.  269. 

of   East  Coast,  Pourtal^s  sketch  of,  i. 
269. 

of  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  260,  280. 

of  Gulf  Stream,  i.  277. 

transition  of,  i.  267- 

vegetable  matter  in,  i.  291. 
Bottom  ooze,  cold,  i.  303. 
Bottom  specimens,  decrease  of  tints  of,   i. 
281. 

examination  of,  i.  3. 
Bottom  temperatures  of  Caribbean,  i.  218. 

of   Caribbean   and    Gulf    of  Mexico,    i. 
24.'>. 

of  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  218. 
Bottom  water,  temperature  of,  i.  303. 
Bourg^eticrinus,  i.  28.5. 
Bourgueticrinus  Hotessieri,  Pourtalfes  on,  ii. 

120. 
Boyle  and  Hooke,  i.  39. 
Brachiopods,  ii.  75. 

character  of,  ii.  75. 

in  palaeozoic  times,  ii.  7.5. 

number  of  fossil  species  of,  ii.  75. 

rare  in  collections,  ii.  75. 

small  number  of  recent  species,  ii.  75- 
Brady  on  "  Challenger  "  foraminifera,  ii.  157. 
Branching  stars,  ii.  109. 
Brandt,  on  parasitic  algae,  i.  214. 
Brazilian  current,  i.  251- 
Breccia  beach,  i.  87. 
Bregmaceros  atlanticus,  ii.  27. 
Bridgetown,  i.  xix. 
Brisinga  coronata,  ii.  108,  109. 
Brooke,    John  M.,  sounding  apparatus  and 

detacher,  i.  3. 
Brotidids,  ii.  25. 
Brown,  Robert,  i.  180- 
Brownson,  W.  H.,  i.  93. 

deep-sea  sounding  by,  i.  .50,  238. 

on  temperature  sections  in  Western  At- 
lantic, i.  221. 
Bryozoa,  ii.  78. 


Bryozoa,  association  of  with  other  animals, 
i.  215. 
forests  of,  i.  141. 
report  on  by  iSmitt,  i.  xxi. 
Buchanan,  J.  Y.,  cliemistry  of  sea  water,  i. 
23. 
on  specific  gravity  of  ocean  water,  i.  298. 
on  specific  gravity  of  sea  water  of  Amer- 
ican coast,  i.  299. ,        •• 
"  Bulldog  "  machine,  i.  42. 
Bushia  elegans,  ii.  74. 
Busk  on  Farciminaria,  ii.  79. 
Buskiella  abyssorum,  ii.  56. 
BmTowing  animals,  diversity  of  colors  in,  i. 
310. 

Caberea  retifomiis,  ii.  80. 

Cadulus,  ii.  67. 

Calanus,  i.  179,  193. 

CalUcarpa  gracilis,  ii.  137,  138. 

Callionymiis  Agassizii,  ii.  29. 

Calliostoma  aurora,  ii.  68. 

Calliostoma  Bairdii,  ii.  68. 

Calliostoma  psyche,  ii.  68. 

Calycophorse,  ii.  135. 

Calyptrophora,  ii.  146. 

Cancellaria  Smithii,  ii.  70. 

Cancroidea,  ii.  37. 

Caflon  between  Santa  Cruz  and  St.  Thomas, 

i.  98. 
Carbonate  of  lime  in  bottom  deposits,  i.  271. 
Carbonate    of    lime    shells,    solution   of,    i. 

266. 
Carbonic  acid  in  sea  water,  determination  of, 
i.  295. 

Dittmar  on,  i.  297. 
Cardium  ^jeramabilis,  ii.  72,  73. 
Caribbean,  bottom  deposits  of,  i.  289. 

calcareous  ooze  of,  i.  290. 

density  of,  i.  300. 

eastern  basin  of,  i.  98. 

gulf  of  the  Pacific,  i.  112. 

heaping  up  of  water  in,  i.  248. 

.superheated,  i.  243. 

western  basin  of,  i.  98. 
Caribbean  and  Atlantic,  connection  of,  i.  112. 
Caribbean    islands,    affinity    of    fauna    and 

flora,  i.  114. 
Carinaria,  i.  191. 
Carpenter,  P.  H.,  on  stalked  crinoids,  ii.  10. 

on  "Blake"  crinoids,  ii.  116. 

on  "Challenger"  Comatulse,  ii.  125. 
Carpenter,  W.  B.,  i.  40,  2a5. 

on  corallines,  i.  166. 

on  organic  broth,  i.  313. 

thermic  theory  of,  i.  249. 


INDEX. 


199 


Carpenter,  W.  B.,  and  Thomson    on  phos- 
phorescent aniinals,  i.  308. 
Carpenteria  balauiformis,  ii.  108. 
Caryophyllia  communis,  ii.  148. 
Castries,  i.  xvii. 

Catapagurus  Sharreri,  ii.  41,  42. 
Caudina,  ii.  85. 

Cellepora  mai-garitacea,  ii.  82. 
Cellularia  cervicornis,  ii.  80. 
CellulariaiLs,  allied  to  Australian  types,  ii.  80. 
Central  America  in  tertiary  period,  i.  1 IG. 
Centroceras,  Pourtales  on,  L  313. 
Centrophorus,  ii.  30. 
Centroscyllium  Fabricii,  ii.  30. 
Cephalopods,  ii.  itS. 

at  great  depths,  ii.  02. 

effect  of  pressure  on,  i.  304. 
Ceratiidae,  ii.  32. 
Ceratodus,  ii.  30. 
Ceratoisis  ornata,  ii.  145. 
Certes,  on  microbes  at  great  depth,  i.  314. 
Cetoconcha  bulla,  ii.  72. 
Cetoconcha  elongata,  ii.  72. 
Chastopods,  deep-sea  species  of,  ii.  ')i). 
Chalk,  cheVnical  constitution  of  the,  i.  140. 

composition  of,  i.  147. 

deep-sea  animals  in  the,  i.  140. 

forming  at  great  depths  near  continents, 
i.  148. 

from  New  Zealand,  i.  148. 
'  near  reefs,  i.  280.  I 

of  New  Britain,  L  148. 

off  Nnevitas,  i.  148. 
Chalk  marl,  character  of,  i.  148. 
"Challenger,"  i.  4. 

on  cold  bands  of  Agulhas  current,  i.  254. 

rich  dredgings  by,  off  Japan,  ii.  13. 

saltest  water  found  by,  i.  299. 
CJhallenger  Deep,  i.  100.  ; 

"  Challenger  "  Expedition,  i.  43. 
Challenger  ridge,  i.  123,  104,  242. 
Channel,  between  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  i.  111. 

between  Jamaica  and  San  Domingo,  i.  OS. 

between  San  Domingo  and  Porto  Rico, 
i.  98. 

between   Santa   Cruz  and  St.  Thomas, 
i.  xiv,  112. 
Channels  betv/een  the  Virgin  Islands,  i.  98. 
Chamisso,  i.  180. 
Charleston,  S.  C,  i.  xix. 
Chauliodes  Sloaiii,  ii.  32,  33. 
Chauliontidae,  ii.  32. 
Chaunaz  pictus,  ii.  32. 
Cheilostomata,  ii.  79. 
Chemical  denudation,  absence  of,  i.  104. 

M.  Reade  on,  i.  128. 


Chemical  results,  of  "Challenger"  Expedi- 
tion, i.  294. 
of  "  Viiringen  "  Expedition,  i.  294. 
Chiasmodon  niger,  ii.  29. 
Chilian  plain,  i.  129. 
Chitonidaj,  ii.  07. 

Chlamydoselachus,  the  frilled  shark,  ii.  36. 
Chrys(^orgidae,  ii.  144. 
Cidaridse,  ii.  88. 
Cidaris,  i.  li">8. 

Cieukowsky  on  parasitic  algse,  i.  214. 
Cirratulus  melauacanthus,  ii.  54. 
Cirripeds,  abyssal,  ii.  50. 
Cladocarpus  paradisea,  ii.  137,  138. 
Cladorhiza  concrescens,  ii.  170,  177. 
Cladorhiza,  Thomson  on,  iL  177. 
Clapar^de,  i.  200. 

Clarke,  S.  F.,  Report  on  Hydroids,  i.  xxi 
Clay  bottom  near  Block  Island,  i.  272. 
Clay  lumps  and  concretions,  i.  273. 
Clement,  C,  i.  277. 
Cleve  on  f  ossilif erous  rocks  of  West  Indies, 

i.  109. 
Clio,  i.  121. 
Clypeastroids,  tertiary,  i.  159. 

absence  of,  in  deep  water,  ii.  97. 
Coast  line,  break  in,  i.  9.5. 
Coast  Survey  office,  i.  xxi. 
Coccoliths,  i.  209. 
Coccospheres,  i.  209. 
Coccospheres  and  rhabdospheres,  C.  Wyville 

Thomson  on,  i.  209. 
Ccelopleurus,  i.  100. 
Ccelopleurus  floridanus,  ii.  93. 
Collecting  cylinder,   specimens  brought  up 

•by,  i.  202. 
Collections  of  "  Blake,"  disposition  of,  i.  xx. 
ColKnella  inscripta,  ii.  170. 
CoUozoum,  i.  195. 
Color,  blue  not  a  protective  one,  i.  310. 

of  deep-sea  Crustacea,  i.  312. 

of  marine  animals,  i.  311. 
Colors,  Secchi  on  penetration  of,  i.  305. 
Colossendeis  colossea,  ii.  49,  50. 
Colossendeis  macerrima,  ii.  50. 
Columbus,  his  theory  of  currents,  i.  251. 

in  northeast  trades,  i.  250. 

on  Sargasso  Sea,  i.  213. 
Comatulae,  abundance  of,  ii.  118. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  11. 

character  of  Caribbean,  ii.  124. 
Concretions,  calcareous,  off  Barbados,  i.  290. 

Clement,  C. ,  analysis  of,  i.  277. 
Connection,  between  Caribbean  and  Atlantic, 
i.  112. 

between  Caribbean  and  Pacific,  i.  112. 


200 


INDEX. 


Conoelypus  Sigsbei.  ii.  99. 
Conolampas,  ii.  97. 
Conolampas  Sigsbei,  ii.  99. 
Continental  areas,  deposits  on,  i.  140. 
Continental  belt,  temperature  pf,  i.  302. 
Continental  connections,  extent  of,  i.  121. 
Continental  denudation,  i.  282. 
Continental  fauna,  i.  162. 

decrease  of ,  i.  107- 
Continental   formations,  i.  143. 
Continental  lands,  height  of,  i.  126. 
Continental    line,    ancient    extension   of,    i.  j 

136. 
Continental  masses,  i.  126. 

effect  on  distribution  of  temperatnre,  L 
248. 

Kriimmel  on  elevation  of,  i.  126. 

nucleus  of,  i.  126. 
Continental  plateau,  edge  of,  i.  108. 
Continental  shelf,  i.  96. 

absence  of    ai^illaceous    matter    on,  i. 
274. 

sandy  plain  of,  i.  272. 
Continental  slopes,  abundance  of  animal  life 
on,  i.  107. 

fauna  adjacent  to,  i.  106. 
Continents  and  oceanic  basins,  Agassiz,  L., 
on  age  of,  i.  J  27. 

Carpenter,  W.  B.,  on  age  of,  i.  127. 

Dana  on  age  of,  i.  127. 

Geikie,  A.,  on  great  age  of,  i.  127. 

Guyot  on  great  age  of,  i.  127. 

Thomson,  Wyville,  on  age  of,  i.  127. 

Wallace  on  age  of,  i.  127. 
Continents,  permanence  of,  i.  12.5. 
Convection  through  ocean  water,  i.  304. 
Copepods,  fertility  of,  i.  204. 

pelagic,  i.  178. 
Coquimbo,  elevated  coast  near,  i.  129. 
Coquina  of  St.  Augustine,  i.  67,  68. 
Coral  bottom,  extent  of,  i.  286. 
Coral  boulders,  i.  .55. 
Coral  breccia,  cementation  of,  i.  .54. 
Corallines,  i.  55. 

Coral  reef   of  Flwida,  Agassiz's  theory  of, 
i.  55. 

Leconte,  J.,  on  theory  of,  i.  .55. 

report  on  by  A.  Agassiz,  i.  xjd. 

theory  of  E.  B.  Hunt,  i.  55. 
Coral  reefs,  ancient,  near  Havana,  i.  71. 

Darwin's  theory  of,  i.  55,  80. 

distribution  of,  i.  76,  286. 

effect  of  light  on,  i.  ,306. 

gfrinding  and  rehandling  of  material  on, 
i.  55. 

of  former  geological  periods,  i.  169. 


Coral  reefs,  northern  extension  of,  i.  161. 

JSemper  on,  i.  76. 

Studer  on,  i.  76. 
Coral  rock  shores,  undermining  of,  i.  87. 
Corals,  ii.  148. 

absence  of   simple  species  in  Caribbean 
area,  ii.  19. 

composition  of,  i.  148. 

depth  of,  affected  by  local  causes,  i.  74. 

known  previous  to  ' '  Blake  * '  Expedition, 
ii.  7. 

limit  to  which  they  extend,  i.  74. 

living  on  edge  of  Bahama  Bank,  i.  75. 

of  Chagos  Archipelago,  i.  74. 

of  miocene  beds,  ii.  19. 

Sharpies,  S.  P.,  analysis  of,  i.  62. 
Coral  sand  beach,  i.  86. 
Coral  sand,  held  in  suspension,  i.  84. 

Wright,  on  slope  of,  i.  83. 
Coral  silt,  carried  along  the  bottom,  i.  84. 
Corbulae  of  Plumularidfe,  ii.  1.37. 
Corniferous  bone  beds,  i.  14.5, 
Cornuspira  foliacea,  ii.  161. 
Corycodus  buUatus,  ii.  39. 
Coryphaena,  i.  193. 
Coryphjenoides,  ii.  26. 
Cosmopolitan  species,  i.  162. 
Crangonidse,  ii.  45. 
Crania  Pourtalesii,  ii.  77. 
Cretaceous  deposits  of  Isthmus  of  Panama, 

i.  11.3. 
Cretaceous  sea,  Jeffreys  on  depth  of,  i.  146. 
Cretaceous  types,  i.  151. 

in  West  Indian  miocene,  ii.  19. 
Cribrella  hospitalis,  ii.  178. 
Crinoid  collection,  disposition  of,  ii.  6. 
Crinoids,  ii.  116. 

color  of  deep-sea,  i.  312. 

known  previous  to  "Blake  "  Expedition, 
ii.  6. 

P.  H.  Carpenter  on,  i.  xxi. 
Crinoids  and  trilobites,  great  development  of 

in  Silurian,  i.  155. 
Crisia  denticulata,  ii.  78,  79. 
Crisia  eburnea,  ii.  79. 
Cristellaria  calcar,  ii.  166. 
Cristellaria  crepidula,  ii.  166. 
CroU,  i.  247. 

Cruises  of  the  "  Blake  "  in  1877,  i.  50,  80.   • 
Crustacea,  ii.  .37. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  169. 

habits  of  deep-sea,  i.  311. 

knowledge  of  previous  to  "  Blake  "  Ex- 
pedition, ii.  4. 

living  under  moist  stones,  i.  153. 

modifications  of,  ii.  44. 


INDEX. 


201 


Crustacea,  organs  of  sight  of,  ii.  44. 

Alph.  Milne-Edwanls,  report  on,  i.  xxi. 

report  on,  by  S.  I.  Smith,  i.  xxi. 
Cryptohelia  Peircei,  ii.  KJD. 
Cryptolaria  conferta,  ii.  13(3. 
Ctenaster  spectabilis,  ii.  104. 
Ctenophores,  ii.  128. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  174. 
Ctenostomata,  ii.  70. 
Cuba,  barrier  reef  of,  i.  110. 

bottom  on  north  shore  of,  i.  288. 

fringing  reef  of,  i.  110. 
Cnnina,  i.  182. 
Currents,  effect  of  in  distribution  of  fauna, 

i.  02. 
Currents  and  tides,  effect  of  on  topography,  i. 

104. 
Currents  of  early  geological  periods,  i.  1.54. 
Cuspidaria  microrhina,  ii.  73,  74. 
Cutlass  fishes,  ii.  28. 
Cyanea,  i.  180. 

Cyclammina  cancellata,  ii.  164. 
Cyclodorippe  nitida,  ii.  .38. 
Cyclopteridae,  ii.  28. 
Cyclothone  lusea,  ii.  0,  22. 
Cymbalopora  buUoides,  ii.  168. 
Cymonomus  quadratus,  ii.  .39. 
Cymopolia,  ii.  39. 
Cymopolus  asper,  ii.  39. 
Cypris,  ii.  51. 

Dactylocalyx  pumiceus,  ii.  172. 
Daetylometra,  i.  203. 

Dall,  W.  H.,  on  antique  character  of  deep- 
sea  fauna,  ii.  20. 

on  deep-sea  moUusks  and  tertiary  types, 
ii.  20. 

on  g^teropods  and  lamellibranchs  of 
the  "Blake,"  ii.  62. 

Report  on  Mollusks,  i.  xxi. 
Dana,  J.  D.,  i.  xxi. 

on  limit  of  reef -building  corals,  i.  74. 
Danielssen,  i.  44. 
Daphnia,  i.  171. 
Darjiling,  i.  106. 
Darwin,  i.  180. 

on  elevation  of  South  American  coast,  i. 
129. 

on  formation  of  coral  reefs,  i.  76. 

on  limit  of  reef -building  corals,  i  74. 

on  pelagic  algae,  i.  208. 

on    resemblance   of    barrier   reefs    and 
atolls,  i.  72. 

theory  of  coral  reefs,  i.  55,  80. 
Dasygorg^a  Agassizii,  ii.  143. 
Dawson,  on  climate  of  arctic  regions,  i.  167. 


Davis,  1.  16. 

Dayman,  "Cyclops"  Expedition,  i.  45. 

De  Bary  on  Symbiosis,  i.  214. 

Deep-sea  acalephs,  i.  186. 

Deep-sea  animals,  carnivorous,  ii.  1. 

color  of,  i.  310. 

habits  of,  i.  274. 

kept  alive  by  ice,  ii.  1. 

killed  by  coming  to  surface,  ii.  1. 

looseness  of  their  tissues,  ii.  2. 
Deep-sea  annelids,  characteristic,  ii.  56. 
Deep-sea  beds,  Fuchs  on  tertiary,  i.  145. 
Deep-sea  cephalopods,  i.  144. 
Deep-sea  corals,  bathymetrical  range  of,  i. 
160. 

identity  of  with  cainozoic,  i.  162. 
Deep-sea  deposits,  i.  143. 

Fuchs  on,  i.  142. 

names  of,  i.  26.3. 

of  past  ages,  i.  141. 
Deep-sea  fauna,  i.  153,  162. 

composition  of,  i.  162. 

in  track  of  oceanic  currents,  i.  167. 

uniform  composition  of,  i.  156. 
Deep-sea  fauna  and  distribution  of  food,  L 

206. 
Deep-sea  fishes,  ii.  21. 

color  of,  i.  311. 

peculiarities  of,  ii.  21. 

specialization  of,  ii.  3.3. 

young  of,  pelagic,  i.  185. 
Deep-sea  flora,  i.  166. 
Deep-sea  formations,  i.  140. 

facies  of,  i.  142. 
Deep-sea  forms,  range  of,  i.  302. 
Deep-sea  gasteropods,  blind,  i.  165. 
Deep-sea  life,  physiology  of,  i.  294. 
Deep-sea  sharks,  i.  40. 
Deep-sea    species    retaining    shallow-water 

habits,  i.  166. 
Deep-sea  sounding,  deepest  by  Belknap,  i.  47. 

early,  i.  47. 

by  cup  by  Sands,  i.  47. 

by  detacher  by  Brooke,  i.  47. 

by  time  intervals  by  W.  R.  Rogers,  i.  47. 

with  cod-line  by  Piatt,  i.  47. 

with  "  Hydra  "  machine,    i.  47. 

with  wire  by  Barnett,  i.  47. 

with  wire  by  Belknap,  i.  47. 

with  wire  by  Thomson,  i.  47. 

with  wire  by  Walsh,  i.  47. 

with  wire  by  Wilkes,  i.  47. 
Deep-sea  sounding  and  dredging,  Sigsbee  on, 

i.  51. 
Deep-sea  temperatures,  by  "Challenger," 
i.  46. 


202 


INDEX. 


Deep-sea  temperatures,  by  "  Gazelle,"  i.  4(5. 

by  Miller-Casella  tbermometer,  i.  46. 

by  ' '  Tiiscarora, ' '  i.  46. 

Franklin  on,  i.  46. 

Humboldt  on,  i.  46. 

Lenz  on,  i.  46. 

Parry  on,  i.  46. 

Phipps  on,  i.  46. 

Pouillet  on,  i.  40. 
Deep-sea  thermometer,  Tait,  P.  T.,  correc- 
tion of,  i.  16. 
Deep-sea  types,  affinities  of,  i.  156. 

"Albatross"  on  distribution  of,  i.  152. 

characteristic,  ii.  21. 

fossil  representatives  of,  ii.  18. 

passage  of,  into  continental  and  littoral 
zones,  i.  163. 

predominant  tint  of,  i.  311. 
Deep-sea  work,  historical  sketch  of,  i.  39. 

by  Bache,  i.  49. 

by  Craven,  i.  49. 

by  Davis,  i.  49. 

by  Maffitt,  i.  49. 

of  Mitchell,  i.  49. 

of  Pourtal^s,  i.  49. 

of  Sands,  i.  49. 

of  U.  S.  Coast  Survey,  i.  48. 
Deep-sea  work,  publications  on,  i.  48. 

Depths  of  the  Sea,  i.  48. 

Moseley  Notes  on  ' '  Challenger ' '  Expe- 
dition, i.  48. 

Narrative  of  "  Challenger,"  i.  48. 

Thalassa  by  Wild,  i.  48. 

Voyage  of  the  "  Challenger,"  i.  48. 
Deep  soundings  by  Bartlett,  i.  48. 

by  Brownson,  i.  47,  48. 
Deep-water  collections,  ii.  8. 
Deep-water  deposits,  Agassiz,  L.,  on,  i.  49. 
Deep-water  fauna,  i.  44. 
Deep-water  gasteropods,  blind,  i.  308. 
Deep-water  types,  identity  of,  i.  152. 

origin  of,  in  palaeozoic  times,  i.  151. 
Deima  Blakei,  ii.  86. 
Deimatidae,  ii.  86. 
De  la  Beche,  on  siliceous  matter  in  water, 

i.  1.50. 
Delesse  lithologie,  i.  49. 
Deltocyathus  italicus,  ii.  149. 
Denmark  Strait,  i.  242. 
Dentalium  perlongum,  ii.  67. 
Dentalium,  lives  in  ooze,  ii.  65. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  169. 
Denudarion,  absence  of  aerial,  i.  104. 

extent  of  aerial,  i.  127- 

of  Mississippi,  Humphreys  and  Abbott, 
on,  i.  128. 


Deposition  of  sedimentary  rocks,  i.  130. 
Deposits,  affected  by  depth,  i.  266. 

along  continental  coasts,  i.  263. 

of  past  periods,   compared   to  those  of 
to-day,  i.  167. 
Depth,  greatest  reached  by  "  Blake,"  i.  97. 
Desmophyllum  crista-galli,  ii.  151. 
Desmophyllum  Riisei,  ii.  150,  151. 
Desmophyllum  solidum,  ii.  150,  151. 
Diadematidse,  i.  82,  159. 
Diaseris  crispa,  ii.  153. 
Diastopora  repens,  ii.  78,  79. 
Diatom  ooze,  i.  266. 
Diatoms,  siliceous  remains  of,  i.  271. 
Dieranodromia,  ii.  40. 
Dietz  on  Florida,  i.  68. 
Diopatra,  bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  56. 
Diopatra  Eschrichtii,  ii.  53. 
Diopatra  glutinatrix,  ii.  53,  56. 
Diopatra  Pourtalesii,  ii.  55. 
Diphyes  acuminata,  ii.  135. 
Diseina  atlantica,  ii.  77. 
Discophorous  medusae,  ii.  130. 
Discorbina  orbicularis,  ii.  168. 
Distichopora  foliacea,  ii.  140. 
Distribution,  of  animals  and  plants  by  cur- 
rents, i.  117. 

of  species,  i.  168. 
Dittmar  on  absorbed  gases  of  bottom  water, 
i.  297. 

on  solids  in  ocean  water,  i.  129. 
Dodecabostrycha  dubia,  ii.  130,  131. 
Doliolum,  i.  187. 
Dolphin  ridge,  i.  123,  164. 
Dolphin  Rise,  i.  97,  242. 
Dominica,  island  of,  i.  xvii. 
Dorippidoidea,  ii.  38. 
Dorocidaris,  i.  158.  • 

Dorocidaris  Blakei,  ii.  89. 
Dorocidaris  papillata,  ii.  88. 
Dredge  of  Ball,  i.  48. 

of  Edward  Forbes,  i.  48. 

of  O.  F.  Muller,  i.  48. 

modification  of,  by  U.  S.  Coast  Survey, 
i.  26. 

of  the  Philippines  islanders,  i.  25. 

speed  in  lowering,  i.  29. 

used  by  P^ron,  i.  48. 

used  by  Stimpson,  i.  48. 

used  by  Wilkes'  Expedition,  i.  48. 
Dredge  and  trawl,  sifting  of  contents  of,  i.  26. 
Dredge  and  swabs,  i.  24. 
Dredging  lines,  1877-78,  i.  ix. 

1878-79,  i^  xi. 

1880,  i.  xix. 

Tampa  Bay  to  Mississippi,  i.  ix. 


INDEX. 


203 


Dredging  upei-ations,  1877-78,  i.  viii. 

1878-79,  i.  xi. 

1880,  i.  xix. 
Dredging  in  tradewinds,  i.  xii. 
Drift  of  New  England  coast,  Agassiz  on,  i. 

122. 
Driftwood,  transportation  of,  i.  180. 
Dromidai,  ii.  40. 
Duncania  barbadensis,  ii.  155. 
DtniL-an  on  fossil  corals  of  West  Indies,  i.  161. 

on  parasitic  fungus,  i.  160. 

on  tertiary  corals,  ii.  IS. 

on  West  Indian  tertiary  corals,  ii.  19. 
Dyplophysa,  i.  181. 

Earth's  criLst,  Saporta  on  formation  of,  i.  140. 
Eastern  CaribJ)ean,  topography  of,  i.  100. 
Eastern  coast  of  Nortlx  American  continent, 

topography  of,  i.  Ou. 
Echinarachnius  in  deep  water,  ii.  0". 
Echini,  American  genera  of,  i.  150. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  108. 

characteristic  West  Indian  fossil,  ii.  97. 

color  of  deep-sea,  i.  311. 

embryonic  character  of  apical  system  of, 
ii.  91. 

list  of  dead  tests  of,  ii.  97- 
Echinid  fauna  of  West  Indies,   analysis  of, 
i.  159. 

former  distribution  of,  i.  157. 

origin  of,  i.  157. 
Echinocucumis  typica,  ii.  8.5. 
Echinocyamus  pusillus,  ii.  97. 
Echinoderms,  ii.  84. 

agency  of  in  triturating  sand,  i.  8.5. 

known  previous   to  "Blake"    Expedi- 
tion, ii.  4. 
Echfciothuria},  ii.  94. 

flexible  test  of,  ii.  94. 
Ehlers,  Ernst,  on  annelids,  ii.  52. 

on  "Porcupine"  annelids,  ii.  57. 

Report  on  Annelids,  i.  xxi. 
Ehrenberg  on  foraminifera  at  great  deptlis, 
i.  45. 

on  globigerinae,  i.  140. 

on  limit  of  reef-building  corals,  i.  74. 
Elasipoda,  abyssal  types  of,  ii.  84. 

huge  .species  of,  ii.  84. 
Electrical  thermometer  of  C.  W.  Siemens,  i. 

17. 
Eledone  verrucosa,  ii.  00. 
Elevated  reefs  of  Barbados,  i.  79. 

of  Cuba,  i.  79. 

of  San  Domingo,  i.  79. 
Elevation,  lines  of,  in  later  geological  periods, 
i.  132. 


Ellis,  i.  39. 

figfui-es  of  Umbellula,  ii.  142. 
Elpididae,  ii.  8(). 
Enclosed  basins,  i.  245. 
Enclosed  seas,  i.  245. 

density  of,  i.  300. 
Enclosed  seas  and  inland  seas,  fauna  of,  i.  40. 
Entz,  Geza,  on  parasitic  algae,  i.  214. 
Epibulia,  i.  181 ;  ii.  135. 
Epimeria  loricata,  ii.  49. 
Epizoanthus,  ii.  148. 

associated  with  Catapagurus,  ii.  41. 
Epizoanthus  houses,  ii.  41. 
Equatorial  circulation,  i.  132. 
Equatorial  current,  i.  92, 

former  course  of,  i.  113.    . 

hot  water  from,  i.  2.33. 
Equatorial  drift,  i.  257. 
Equatorial  water,  path  of,  i.  25$. 
Equipment  of  "Blake,"  i.  1. 
Eryonidae,  ii.  42. 

eyes  of,  ii.  42. 

eyes  of  fossil,  ii.  4;]. 
Eryon-like  Crustacea,  i.  144. 
Escharipora  stellata,  ii.  80. 
Eucharis  midticomis,  ii.  130. 
Eucheilota,  i.  183. 
Eucope,  i.  159. 
Eudoxia,  i.  181. 
Eunice  conglomerans,  ii.  55. 
Eunice  tibiana,  ii.  55. 
Eunicidse,  fossil,  ii.  .56. 

genera  of,  ii.  55. 

importance  of,  ii,  5.5. 

tubes  of,  ii.  5.5. 
Euphausia,  i.  193. 
Euphronides  cornuta,  ii.  87. 
Euplectella,  Jovis,  ii.  172,  173. 
Enrypharynx,  ii.  3.5. 
Eutima,  i.  18.3. 
Everglades,  i.  69. 

concentric  reefs  of,  i.  63. 
Extracrinus,  ii.  117. 
Eyes,  as  spectroscopes,  i.  309. 

of  deep-water  animals,  i.  307. 

Fangophilina  submersa,  ii.  177. 
Farciminaria  delicatissima,  ii.  78. 
Fariow,  i.  209. 
Farrea  facunda,  ii.  171. 
Fauna,  change  of,  due  to  nature  of  bottom, 
i.  285. 

characteristic  of  restricted  regions,  ii.  1.3. 

evidence  furnished  by  fossils  on  charac- 
ter of,  i.  275. 

in  closed  seas,  isolation  of,  i.  164. 


204 


INDEX. 


Fauna,  of  abyssal  region,  ii.  14. 

of  bottom  between  Windward  Islands, 
ii.  14. 

of  calcareous  ooze,  i.  143. 

of  continental  region,  ii.  14. 

of  early  geological  periods,  i.  154. 

of  great  limestone  banks,  ii.  13. 

of  limestone  plateaux,  i.  143. 

of  littoral  region,  ii.  14. 

of  past  periods  uniform  at  great  depths, 
i.  108. 

of  plateaux,  i.  92. 

of  plateaux  in  track  of  currents,  i.  92. 

of  Pourtales  Plateau,  ii.  13. 

of  Pourtales  Plateau,  extension  of,  i.  287. 

of  pteropod  ooze,  ii.  13. 

of  Red  Sea  and  Mediterranean,  differ- 
ence of,  i.  123. 

of  reef  region,  ii.  14. 

of  steep  slope  of  Gulf  Stream,  i.  120. 

of  successive  reefs,  i.  161. 

off  the  Tortugas,  ii.  14. 
Faunal  districts,  i.  302. 

narrow  limits  of,  i.  167. 
Favosites,  supposed  species  of,  ii.  83. 
Ferrell  on  swinging  of  cold  water  at  bottom, 

i.  249. 
Fewkes,  J.  Walter,  i.  x. 

on  "Blake"  acalephs,  ii.  129. 

Report  on  Acalephs,  i.  xxi. 
Fierasfer  and  holothurians,    association  of, 

i.  215. 
Firoloidea,  i.  191. 

Fish  Commission,  U.  S. ,  explorations  of,  i.  50. 
"Fish-Hawk,"  i.  50. 
Fish  teeth  in  bottom  deposits,  i.  281. 
Fishes,  bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  168 ;  ii.  23. 

bottom  feeders,  ii.  27. 

bottom  living  species,  ii.  24. 

cartilaginous  skeletons  of,  i.  304. 

color  of  deep-sea,  i.  311. 

known  previous  to   "Blake"    Expedi- 
tion, ii.  4. 

migration  of,  ii.  23. 

of  the  abyssal  realm,  ii.  23. 

pelagic  types  of,  ii.  23. 

phosphorescent  light  of,  ii.  34. 

phosphorescent  organs  of,  ii.  36. 

predaceous,  ii.  27. 

report  on  by  Goode  and  Bean,  i.  xxi. 

shallow-water  species  of,  ii.  24. 

tactile  organs  of,  ii.  36. 

upper  limits  of,  ii.  23. 
Flabellum  Goodei,  ii.  150. 
Flabellum  Moseleyi,  ii.  1.50. 
Flat  fishes,  fossil,  ii.  24. 


Flora,  distribution  of  by  drift,  i.  122. 
Florida,  Agassiz  on  the  age  of,  i.  88. 

axis  of  elevation  of,  i.  110. 

backbone  of,  Smith  and  Hilgard  on  the, 
i.  61. 

bathymetrical  sections  off,  i.  66. 

bryozoa  of,  identical  with  tertiary  types, 
ii.  79. 

character  of  coast  islands  of,  i.  67. 

coral  reef  of,  i.  58. 

Dietz  on  character  of,  i.  68. 

eastern  coast-line  of,  i.  52. 

flora  of,  i.  116. 

geology  of,  Conrad  on,  i.  110. 

geology  of,  by  E.  Hilgard,  i.  110. 

geology  of,  by  E.  A.  Smith,  i.  110. 

limestone  backbone  of,  i.  110. 

limestone  plateaux  of,  i.  122. 

mangrove  islands  of,  i.  53. 

not  built  up  by  reef,  i.  69. 

recent  limestones  of,  i.  62. 

submarine  plateau  of,,  i.  62. 

southern  coast-line  of,  i.  52. 

west  bank  of,  i.  52. 
Florida  Bank,  i.  x. 

material  of,  i.  56. 

submarine  base  of,  i.  141. 

west  edge  of,  i.  ix. 
Florida  flats,  keys  of,  i.  52. 
Florida  keys,  structure  of,  i.  53. 
Florida  mud  flats,  dip  of,  i.  59. 
Florida  peninsula,  age  of,  i.  88. 
Florida  plateau,  animal   life  abiindant  on, 

i.  62. 
Florida  Reef,  i.  52. 

channels  across,  i.  00. 

curve  of,  i.  57. 

depth  of  water  on,  i.  54. 

extension  of  to  deeper  water,  i.  60. 

flats  of,  i.  58. 

mud  flats,  appearance  of,  i.  59. 

northern  extension  of,  i.  69. 

not  elevated,  i.  61. 

Pourtales  exploration  of,  i.  286. 

recent  corals  of,  i.  78. 

shape  of,  i.  53. 

survey  of,  i.  vii. 

survey  of,  by  L.  Agassiz,  i.  49. 

tides  across  the,  i.  57. 
Food  question  in  distribution  of  animals,  i.  91. 
Food  supply  of  young  fishes,  i.  204. 
Foraminifera  and  currents,  i.  279. 
Foraminifera,  arenaceous  types  of,  ii.  158. 

as  guides  to  deep-sea  deposits,  i.  146. 

at  great  depths,  Huxley  on,  i.  45. 

bathymetrical  rangs  of  pelagic,  i.  196. 


INDEX. 


205 


Foraminifera,  Brady  on,  ii.  157. 

Carpenter  on,  ii.  158. 

Ehrenberg  on,  at  great  deptlis,  i.  45. 

in  littoral  deposits,  i.  14(5. 

Parker  on,  ii.  15S. 

Williamson  on,  ii.  158. 
Foraminiferous  calcareous  bottom,  Pourtalfes 

on,  i.  284. 
Forbes,  Edward,  on  limit  of  animal  life,  i.  40. 

on  ^geau  Sea,  i.  40. 
Forel,  on  penetration  of  light,  i.  305. 

on  pelagic  fanna  of  Swiss  lakes,  i.  199. 
Foniiigaa  Bank,  i.  1)8. 
Fort  Jefferson  laboratory,  i.  xi. 
Foster  on  temperature  of  ocean,  i.  46. 
Franklin,  i.  241. 

on  deep-sea  temperatures,  i.  40. 
Frankland  on  solid  matter  held  in  solution, 

i.  128. 
Fossil  marine  fauna,  i.  122. 
Fuclis,  on  bathymetrical  faonal  subdivisions, 

i.  loa. 

on  deep-sea  deposits,  i.  142. 
on  tertiary  deep-sea  beds,  i.  145. 
Fungia  symmetrica,  ii.  153. 

Gadus  fossil,  ii.  25. 
Galatheoidea,  ii.  42. 
Garay,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  i.  251. 
Gardner,  J.  S.,  on  blue  muds,  i.  148. 

on  temperature  of  bottom  of  ocean,  i. 
132. 
Garman,  Samuel,  i.  x. 
Gas  analysis,  Behrens,  apparatus  for,  i.  294. 

Bunsen  apparatus  for,  i.  294. 
Gases,  presence  of  at  great  depth,  i.  23. 
Gasteropods,  ii.  02. 

roving  life  of,  ii.  65. 

small  size  of  deep-sea,  i.  169. 
Gastrostomus  Bairdii,  ii.  31,  34,  35. 
Gaza  superba,  ii.  68. 
Geddes  on  Philozoon,  i.  214. 
Geikie,  A.,  on  great  age  of  continents  and 
oceanic  basins,  i.  127. 

on  lost  Atlantis,  i.  127. 
Gephyreans,  ii.  .52. 
Creographical  provinces,  i.  302. 
Geographical  range  of  polyps,  ii.  17. 
Geog^raphy,  of  different  geological  periods, 
i.  132. 

of  time  of  chalk,  i.  133. 

of  tertiary  period,  i.  134. 

since  triassic  period,  i.  161. 
Geological  time  since  the  cretaceous,  i.  139. 
George's  Bank,  i.  50. 
George's  Shoal,  i.  xix. 


Geryon  quinquedens,  ii.  .38. 

Giant  squids,  ii.  ()2. 

Gibbs,  W.,  deteiouination  of  specific  gravity, 

i.  21. 
Giglioli,  i.  41. 
Glaucus,  i.  186. 
Gleba  hippopus,  ii.  134. 
Globigeriiui,  i.  171. 
Globigerina  and  pteropod  ooze  of   Gulf  of 

Mexico  and  Caribbean,  i.  281. 
Globigerina  bottom  ooze,  discovery  of,  i.  284. 
Globigerina  buUoides,  ii.  167,  168. 
Globigerina  ooze,  i.  272. 

compared  to  chalk,  i.  147. 

composition  of,  i.  147. 

depth  at  which  found,  i.  265. 

depth  at  which  it  appears,  i.  147. 

Murray  on,  carbonate  of  lime  in,  i.  281. 

northern  extension  of,  i.  282. 

transition  of  to  red  clay,  i.  272. 
Globigerinse,  Bailey  on  Atlantic,  i.  146. 

bottom  specimens  of,  ii.  167. 

living  on  bottom,  ii.  159. 

Maffitt  and  Craven  on  Gulf  Stream,  i.  45. 

Miiller  on,  ii.  159. 

Murray  on,  ii.  159. 

Owen  on,  ii.  159. 

Pourtalfes  on,  ii.  159. 

Pourtales  on  limit  of,  i.  284. 

shell  of,  ii.  167. 

young  shells  of,  ii.  167. 
Glossocodon,  i.  186. 
Glyphocrangon  aculeatus,  ii.  45. 
Gnathophausia  Zoea,  ii.  48,  49. 
Gobies,  ii.  29. 
Goes,  i.  42. 
GoniasteridsB,  ii.  102. 
Goniocidaris,  radioles  of,  ii.  89. 
Goniopecten,  ii.  103. 
Gonostoma  microdon,  ii.  9. 
Goode  and  Bean,  notes  on  deep-sea  fishes,  ii. 
21. 

Report  on  Fishes,  i.  xxi. 
Goose  fish,  ii.  24. 
GorgonisB,  deep-sea  types  of,  ii.  143. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  199;  ii.  146. 
Graff,  L.  v..  Report  on  Myzostomidse,  i.  xxi. 

on  MjrzostonudaB  of  the    "  Blake,"  ii. 
126. 
Grand  Cayman,  great  depth  off,  i.  100. 
Ch^nde  Terre  Guadeloupe,  i.  xvi,  63,  65. 
Gravitation  theory  of  oceanic  circulation,  i. 

247. 
Great  Britain,  former  connection  of,  i.  125. 
Gh"eater   West     India    Islands,    affinity    of 
fauna  and  flora  of,  i.  115. 


206 


INDEX. 


Greenland  current,  i.  241. 
Greensand,  Bailey  on,  i.  45. 

Bailey  on  process  of  formation  of,  i.  278. 

deposits  of,  i.  141. 

Ehrenberg  on,  i.  278. 

modem,  i.  278. 

Murray  on  composition  of,  i.  278. 

Pourtal^s  on    formation  of    modem,   i. 
278. 

Pourtal^s  on  position  of  belt  of,  i.  278. 

on  shore  edge  of  Gulf  JStream,  i.  236. 

ofe  Cayo  de  Moa,  i.  291. 
Grenada,  island  of,  i.  xviii. 
Grenadines,  i.  xviii. 
Groupers,  ii.  28. 
Guadeloupe,  island  of,  i.  xvi. 
Guinea  Stream,  i.  247. 
Guppy  on  reef  holothurians,  i.  85. 
Gulf  of  Maine,  bottom  specimens  of,  i.  261. 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  basin  of,  i.  100. 

a  hydrostatic  reservoir,  i.  249. 

areas  of  basin  of,  i.  101. 

bottom  temperature  of,  i.  15. 

heaping  up  of  water  in,  i.  248. 

Howell  exploration  of,  i.  .50. 

superheated  water  of,  i.  233. 

topographical  features  of,  i.  102. 

unstable  equilibrium  of,  i.  248. 
Gulf  Stream,  i.  xx,  241. 

A.  Agassiz  report  on,  i.  xxi. 

amount  of  outflow  of,  i.  250. 

ancient  course  of,  i.  137. 

Bache  on,  in  1845,  i.  252. 

Bache  on  warm  and  cold  bands  of,  i. 
253. 

Baer,  K.  E.  v.,  on  eastern  extension  of, 
i.  252. 

Bailey  on  soundings  of  along  couree  of, 
i.  272. 

Bartlett  on  course  of,  i.  257. 

Bartlett  on  warm  and  cold  bands  of,  i. 
254. 

Blagden  on  temperature  of,  i.  252. 

Coast  Survey  on  structure  of,  i.  253. 

cold  bands  of,  i.  234. 

course  of,  across  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  113. 

Craven  on  warm  and  cold  bands  of,  i. 
253. 

Davis  on  warm  and  cold  bands  of,  i.  253. 

development  of  knowledge  of,  i.  249. 

eastern  extension  of,  i.  257. 

Folger  on,  i.  252. 

Franklin  exploration  of,  i.  252. 

inflow  of,  into  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  256. 

Maffitt  on  warm  and  cold  bands  of,   i. 
2.53. 


Gulf  Stream,  Mitchell,  H.,  current  observa- 
tions of,  i.  232. 

northern  coui-se  of,  i.  121,  138. 

outflow  of,  into  Straits  of  Florida,  i.  256. 

path  of,  towards  Europe,  i.  257. 

temperature  of,  near  shore,  i.  258. 

Thomson  on  cold  and  warm  belts  of,  i. 
2.54. 

trough  of ,  i.  XX. 

velocity  of,  i.  256. 

velocity  of  axis  of,  i.  259. 

velocity  of.  through  Yucatan  Channel, 
i.  258. 

wearing  action  of,  i.  138. 
Gulf  Stream  favma  off  Charleston,  i.  120. 
Gulf  Stream  floor  swept  clean,  i.  236. 
Gulf  Stream  slope,  i.  9(),  274. 
Gulf  Stream  work,  i.  xi. 
Giinther  on  accessoi-y  eyes  of  fishes,  ii.  22. 

on  deep-sea  fishes,  ii.  21. 
Gurnards,  ii.  30. 

Guyot  on  great  age  of  continents  and  oceanic 
basins,  i.  127. 

Habits  of  deep-sea  animals,  ii.  8. 
Haeckel,  E.,  i.  35. 

on  Bathybius,  i.  204. 

on  yellow  cells  of  radiolarians,  i.  213. 
Hake,  ii.  23. 
Halcyonoids,  ii.  142. 
Halimeda,  i.  82. 
Halobates,  i.  179. 
Halosaurus  macrochir,  ii.  32,  .33. 
Hand  nets,  collecting  by,  i.  35. 
Haplophyllia  paradoxa,  ii.  154,  155. 
Harger,  Report  on  Isopods,  i.  xxi. 
Harvey,  i.  313. 

"  Hassler  "  Expedition,  i.  49,  51. 
Hastigerina,  i.  190 ;  ii.  168. 
Hatteras,  lines  run  normal  to  coast  south  of, 
i.  135. 

slope  of  detritus  off,  i.  131. 
Hubert  on  aragonite,  i.  147. 
Helioporidae,  ii.  138. 
Hemiaster  expergitus,  ii.  100. 
Hemiaster,  fascioles  of,  ii.  98. 
Hemiaster  zonatus,  ii.  100. 
Hemieuryale  pustulata,  ii.  .5. 
Hemipedina,  i.  158. 
Hemipedina  cubensis,  ii.  97. 
Hermit  crabs,  ii.  40. 
Herschell,  i.  247. 

Hertwig  on  yellow  cells  of  actiniae,  i.  214. 
Heterocarpus  carinatus,  ii.  46. 
Heteropods,  i.  190. 
Heteropora,  ii.  83. 


INDEX. 


207 


Hexactinellidse,  ii.  12,  170. 

Thonisou,  C.  Wyville,  on,  ii.  170. 
Hierlatz,  liassic  beds  of,  i.  144. 
Hilgard  Deep,  i.  100. 
Hilgard,  E.,  geology  of  Florida,  i.  110. 
Hilgard,  J.  E.,  i.  49,  9a. 

on  Gulf  of  Mexico  as  a  hydrostatic  res- 
ervoir, i.  249. 
Hilgard's  aerometer,  i.  21. 
Hippothoa  biaperta,  ii.-81. 
Hippurella  annulata,  ii.  137,  lo8. 
Histriophonis,  i.  19o. 

Hoek  on  palaeontology  of  cirripeds,  ii.  51. 
Hoisting  engines  for  dredge,  i.  .31. 
Holopus,  ii.  6. 

young,  ii.  124. 
Holopus  Rangi,  ii.  123. 
Holothurians,  ii.  84. 

known  previous  to    "Blake"   Expedi- 
tion, ii.  4. 

shallow-water  genera  of,  ii.  84. 
Holt.enia,  i.  40. 
Holtenia  Pourtalesii,  ii.  175. 
Honialodromia,  ii.  40. 
Homolidae,  ii.  40. 
Homolopsis,  ii.  40. 
Hooker,  i.  .39. 

on  giant  kelp,  i.  209. 
Humboldt,  i.  247. 

Humphreys  and  Abbott  on  Mississippi  denu- 
dation, i.  128. 
Hunt,  E.  B.,  on  mud  flats  of  Florida,  i.  60. 

theory  of  coral  reef  of  Florida,  i.  55. 
Hutton  on  New  Zealand  fauna,  i.  122. 
Huxley,  Th.   H.,   on  foraminifera  at   great 

depths,  i.  45. 
Hyalea,  i.  187,  205. 
Hyalinoecia  tubicola,  ii.  52. 
Hyalinoecia  tubes,  ii.  57. 
Hyalonema  boreale,  ii.  177. 
Hyalonema,  Japanese,  ii.  173,  174,  175. 

Leidy  on  siliceous  spicules  of,  ii.  173. 
Hyalonema  Sieboldii,  ii.  178. 
Hyalopomatus  Langerhansi,  ii,  53,  57. 
Hydrocorallinse,  Moseley  on,  ii.  1.38. 
Hydroids,  report  on  by  George  J.   Allman, 
i.  xxi. 

Allman  on  deep-sea,  ii.  135. 

in  fresh  water,  i.  153. 

known  previous  to  "  Blake  ' '  Expedition, 
ii.  7. 

S.  F.  Clark  on,  i.  xxi. 
HydromedussB,  ii.  128. 
Hymenodiscus  Agassizii,  ii.  105,  106. 
Hyperammina  elongata,  ii.  102. 
Hypsicometes,  ii.  30. 


Ice-borne  deposits  and  rocks,  i.  271. 

Infulasteridse,  i.  159. 

"Ingegerd"  and  ''Gladau,"  Expedition  of 
the,  i.  40. 

Iguana  of  Navassa,  i.  1 15. 

Inland  sea.s  and  enclosed  seas,  fauna  of,   i. 
40. 

Inshore  plateau,  deposits  on,  i.  201. 

Intermediate  deep-sea  forms,  ii.  17. 

Intermediate  depths,  "Challenger"  Expedi- 
tion on  specimens  from,  i.  2(X). 

Invertebrates,  coloring  matter  of,  i.  309. 
subdivision  of  labor  among,  i.  215. 

Ipnops,  eyes  of,  ii.  34. 

Ipnops  Murrayi,  ii.  32. 

Iridogorgia  Pourtalesii,  ii.  144. 

Islands  forming  Central  and  South  America, 
i.  113. 

Isocardia  cor,  ii.  74. 

Isolated  rocky  patches  in  Gulf  of  Mexico,  ii. 
57. 

Isopod,  blind,  ii.  178. 

largest  known,  ii.  49. 

Isopods,  ii.  48. 

report  on  by  Harger,  i.  xxi. 

Isospondyli,  pelagic,  ii.  .3.3. 

Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  closing  of  passage 
across,  i.  118. 

Jacoby,  H.  M.,  i.  viii,  32. 
Jauthina,  i.  180. 
Jeffreys,  Gwyn,  i.  43. 

on  depth  of  cretaceous  sea,  i.  146. 
Jeukin,  Fleeming,  report  on  animals  attached 

to  submarine  cable,  i.  44. 
Johnson,  J.  A.,  i.  49. 
"Josephine,"  expedition  of  the,  i.  42. 
Julien,  A.  A.,  i.  115. 

Kelp,  Hooker  on  giant,  i.  209. 

Keys,  formation  of,  i.  .54. 

Keys  formed  by  waste,  i.  57. 

Key  West  Harbor,  entrance  to,  i.  54. 

Key  West,  Navy  Depot,  i.  xi. 

Kinchinjinga,  i.  106. 

"Knight    Errant,"    Expedition    of    the,    i. 

44. 
Kohl,  Geschichte  des  Golf  Strom,  i.  250. 
KoUiker  on    "Challenger"   pennatulids,   ii. 

143. 
Kophobelemnon  scabruni,  ii.  142. 
Kriimmel  on  elevation  of  continental  masses, 

i.  126. 
on  oceanic  basins,  i.  120. 
Krusenstern,  temperatures  taken  by,  i.  46. 
Kurtz,  i.  43. 


208 


INDEX. 


Labrador  current,  i.  241. 

Lugena  distoma,  ii.  165. 

Laraellibrauchs,  ii.  02. 

Land  animals,  distribution  of,  from  the  arctic, 

i.  166. 
Land  connections,  former,  i.  121. 
Land  tortoise  of  West  Indies,  i.  115. 
Langley  on  color  of  atmosphere,  i.  307. 
Larval   forms,   retardation   of  development 

of,  i.  175. 
Leconte,    Joseph,    theory   of    coral   reef   of 

Florida,  i.  55. 
Lefroyella  decora,  ii.  171. 
Lemuria,  i.  126. 
Lenz,  i.  249. 

on  deep-sea  temperatures,  i.  46. 
Lepas  anatifa,  i.  182. 
Lepidisis,  ii.  14.5. 
Leptocephalus,  i.  121. 

a  larval  foi-m,  i.  175. 
Leptonemus  discus,  ii.  154. 
Leptothyra  induta,  ii.  68,  61). 
Lescarbot   on  warm  water  in  North  Atlan- 
tic, i.  252. 
Leucosoidea,  ii.  38. 
Level,  difference  of,  between  Sandy  Hook 

and  Mississippi,  i.  249. 
Leydig,  on  accessory  eyes  of  fishes,  ii.  22. 

on  phosphorescent  organs  of  fishes,  ii.  22. 
Light,  absence  of,  beyond  100  fathoms,  i.  165. 
penetration  of,  i.  .305. 
Pourtales  on  penetration  of,  i.  305. 
Sarasin  and  Fol  on  penetration  of,  i.  305, 

306. 
Sarasin  and    Soret    on   penetration    of, 

i.  300. 
Verrill  on  color  of   at  great  depths,  i. 
305. 
"Lightning,"  deep-sea  temperatures  by,  i. 
46. 
Expedition  of  the,  i.  43. 
Limestone  banks,  of  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  63. 

submarine  position  of,  i.  65. 
Limestone  and  volcanic  peaks,  i.  64. 
Limestone,  formed  by  pelagic  animals,  i.  85. 
deposits  of  coarse,  i.  141. 
of  Caribbean,  i.  63. 
of  Grande  Terre,  i.  63. 
of  Southern  Cuba,  i.  63. 
of  West  India  Islands,  i.  64. 
of  Yucatan  and  other  plateaux,  i.  72. 
■Limestone  deposits,  formation  of,  i.  90. 
Limestone  plateaux,  i.  1.31. 
Limestone  terraces,  of  Windward  Islands,  i. 
64. 
of  Barbados,  i.  63. 


Limopsis  aurita,  ii.  73. 

Limit  of  animal  life,  Edward  Forbes  on,  i.  40. 
Limits  of  ' '  Blake  ' '  dredgings,  ii.  12. 
Line  of  soundings,  across  eastern  Caribbean, 
i.  100. 
east  of  Cape  May,  i.  xx. 
from  Cape   San  Antonio  to  Sand  Key, 

i.  ix. 
from  Curagoa  to  Alta  Vela,  i.  100. 
from  Cura^oa  to  mainland,  i.  99. 
from  Yucatan  Bank  to  Alacran  Reef,  i. 

ix. 
north  of  Cape  Hatteras,  i.  xx. 
Lindahl  on  Umbellula,  i.  40. 
Lindenkohl,  on  140  fathom  hole,  i.  95. 
Linerges  mercurius,  i.  186. 
Lingula,  a  littoral  species,  i.  169. 

a  shallow-water  animal,  i.  151. 
Liparidffi,  ii.  28. 
Liriope,  i.  183. 
List   of  foraminifera  found  in  globigerina 

ooze,  i.  265. 
Lithistidffi,  ii.  12,  175. 
Zittel  on,  ii.  175. 
Lithodes  Agassizii,  ii.  39,  40,  41. 
Littoral  belt,  i.  157. 
Littoral  bottom  deposits,  i.  260. 
Littoral  fauna,  i.  162,  165. 

position  of,  i.  141. 
Littoral   regions,   cliaracter  of  fauna  of,  i. 

107. 
Littoral  species,  bathymetrical  range  of,  i. 

302. 
Littoral  types,  adaptation  of,  i.  207. 

migration  of,  i.  207. 
Lituolinse,  ii.  163. 
Liversidge,  i.  148. 
Ljungman,  i.  42. 
Loggerhead  Key,  oolitic  and  breccia  lime> 

stone  at,  i.  67. 
Lophius  piscatorius,  ii.  31. 
Lophohelia  prolifera,  ii.  151. 
Lopholatilus  chamseleonticeps,  ii.  29. 
Loriol,  P.  de,  ii.  99. 
Lov^n,  S.,  i.  42. 

on  derivation  of  abyssal  fauna,  i.  155. 
on  geographical  range  of  deep-sea  types, 
ii.  15. 
Lucifuga  of  caves  of  Cuba,  ii.  26. 
Lump  fishes,  ii.  28. 
Lump  suckers,  ii.  28. 

Liitken,  on  West  Indian  Pentacrinidae,  ii.  118. 
Lycodidse,  ii.  26. 
Lyell,   on  land  and  oceanic  hemispheres,  i. 

241. 
Lyman,  T.,  Report  on  Ophiurans,  i.  xxi. 


INDEX. 


209 


Macrocystis,  i.  313. 
Macropneustes,  i.  159,  160. 
Macropneustes  spatangoides,  ii.  98. 
Macruroids,  ii.  2(j. 
Macrurus  Baii-dii,  ii.  26,  27. 
Macrurus  caribbseus,  ii.  20,  27. 
Madiigivscar,  relation  to  Africa,  i.  126. 
Miulrepora  cervicornis,  i.  82,  86. 
Madrepora  palinata,  i.  70,  83. 

wall  of,  i.  70. 
Madrepora  prolifera,  i.  SI,  82. 
Maiandrina  areolata,  i.  S2. 
Maffitt  and  Craven  on  Gulf  Stream  globige- 

rinje,  i.  45. 
Magnaghi,  i.  41. 
Maioidea,  ii.  37. 
Malacosteus  niger,  ii.  34,  35. 
Maldane  euculigera,  ii.  .54. 
Mallet  on  primordial  ocean,  i.  153. 

on  atmosphere  of  steam,  i.  128. 
Malmgren,  i.  42. 
Malthe,  ii.  31. 
Mammals,  distribution  of,  by  driftwood,   i. 

122. 
Manatee  bones,  i.  282. 

Pourtales  on,  i.  144. 
Manganese    concretions    and    phospbate    of 

lime,  i.  275. 
Manganese  nodules,  i.  141,  290. 
Mangrove  islands,  formation  of,  i.  53. 
Mangrove  plants,  i.  53. 
Manicina,  i.  55. 
Margarita  aeglees,  ii.  68. 
Mai^inella  succinea,  ii.  69. 
Marginella  Watsoni,  ii.  (59,  70. 
Marie-Galante,  i.  xvi. 
Marine  animals,  destruction  of,  i.  274. 

food  of,  i.  204. 
Marine  deposits,  character  of,  i.  266. 

composition  of,  i.  262. 
Marine  fishes  in  the  Amazons,  i.  153. 
Marine   forms   within    100   fathom    line,    i. 

142. 
Marine  plants,  distribution  of,  i.  312. 
Marquesas  atoll,  structure  of,  i.  73. 
Marquesas  islands,  examination  of,  i.  73. 

lagoon  of,  i.  73. 
Marshall,  his  tangle  bar,  i.  26. 
Martinique,  i.  112. 

island  of,  i.  xvi. 
Mascarene  islands,  relation  to  Africa,  i.  126. 
Mastigoteuthis  Agassizii,  ii.  59. 
McClintock,  i.  45. 
McRea,  Henry,  i.  32. 

Mediterranean,    conttast  between    northern 
and  southern  shores  of,  i.  123. 


Mediterranean,  great  changes  in  eastern  basin 
of,  i.  123. 

recent  connection  with  Atlantic,  i.  123. 
Medus%,  decomposition  of,  ii.  128. 

deep-sea  types  of,  ii.  128. 

of  intermediate  depths,  ii.  128. 
Meiocardia  Agassizii,  ii.  74. 
Melanocetus,  ii.  32. 
Mellita,  i.  159. 

Membranipora  canariensis,  ii.  79. 
Meningodora,  ii.  47- 
Mentz,  Geo.  W.,  i.  viii,  32. 
Meoma,  i.  159. 
Merlucius,  ii.  25. 
Metacrinus,  ii.  116. 
Metacrinus  ang^latus,  ii.  117. 
Metamorphoses  of  deep-sea  animals,  ii.  8. 
Mexico,    Gulf  of,    Hydrographic   Chart  of, 
i.  15. 

unstable  equilibrium  of,  i.  248. 
Micropanope  pugilator,  ii.  38. 
Migration  of  sharks,  i.  123. 
Miliolinae,  i.  271. 
Millepora,  Agassiz  on,  ii.  138. 

Moseley  on,  ii.  1.38. 
Millepora  alcicornis,  ii.  138,  139. 
Miller  on  Pentacrinus,  ii.  116. 
Miller-Casella  thermometer,  i.  15. 
Milne-Edwards,  Alph.,  i.  40,  44,  204. 

on  fauna  of  antarctic  region,  i.  121. 

Report  on  Crustacea,  i.  xxi. 

on  Sargassum,  i.  212. 
Milne-Edw.ards  and  Haime  on  tertiary  corals, 

ii.  18. 
Mississippi  basin,  denudation  of,  i.  128. 
Mississippi  mud,  i.  57,  131. 

fauna  of,  i.  282. 
Mississippi,  wearing  action  of,  i.  138. 
Mitchell,  Henry,  on  current  of  Gulf  Stream, 
i.  2.32. 

on  Nicholas  and  Santaren  channels,  i. 
235. 
Mitra  Swainsonii,  ii.  70. 
Mixtopagurus  paradoxus,  ii.  41. 
Mnemiopsis,  i.  199. 
Modiola  polita,  ii.  64,  73. 
Mohn,  i.  44. 

MoUusk  fauna  of  West  Indies,  i.  114. 
Mollusks,  ii.  58. 

absence  of  vegetable  feeders,  ii.  64. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  160. 

carnivorous,  ii.  65. 

Dall,  W.  H.,  Report  on,  i.  xxi. 

distribution  of,  by  driftwood,  i.  122. 

flexible  species  of,  ii.  65. 

inflexible  species  of,  ii.  65. 


210 


INDEX. 


MoUusks,  known  previous  to  ' '  Blake  ' '  Ek- 
pedition,  ii.  4. 

with  poison  fangs,  ii.  65. 
Mona  Passage,  i.  98,  159. 
Monactinellidae,  ii.  177. 
Monolene  atrimana,  ii.  24. 
Montauk  Point,  i.  xix. 
Montserrat,  island  of,  i.  xvi. 
Moore,  W.  S.,  i.  x,  32. 

Moseley,  on   absence  of  palaeozoic  types   in 
deep  sea,  i.  157. 

on  age  of  abyssal  fauna,  i.  155. 

on  coloring  matter  of  deep-sea  inverte- 
brates, i.  309. 

on  derivation  of  abyssal  fauna,  i.  155. 

on  eyes  of  Ipnops,  ii.  34. 

on  fauna  and  flora  of  deep-sea  explora- 
tions, i.  156. 

on  fructification  of  Sargassum,  i.  212. 

on  pelagic  conditions  of   littoral  types, 
i.  154. 

on  range  of  temperature,  i.  300. 

on  sinking  of  Salpje,  i.  187,  313. 
Mosquito  Plateau,  i.  98. 
Mount  Maitland,  i.  xviii. 
Mud  flats  of  Florida,  E.  B.  Hunt  on,  i.  60. 
Mud  holes  off  New  York,  i.  272. 
Miiller,  Johannes,  i.  35,  200. 

on  yellow  cells  of  radiolarians,  i.  213. 
Miiller   and  Troschel,  on   number   of  West 

Indian  ophiurans,  ii.  113. 
Miiller,  O.  F.,  dredge  of,  i.  24. 
Miilleria,  i.  82. 
Mnnida,  ii.  43. 

Munidopsis  rostrata,  ii.  42,  4.3. 
Murray,  John,  i.  4,  44. 

on  carbonate  of  lime  in  sea  water,  L  65. 

on  chondres  and  cosmic  dust,  i.  262. 

on  Coast  Survey  bottom  deposits,  i.  280. 

on  composition  of  red  clay,  i.  267. 

on  depth  of  chalk  sea,  i.  147. 

on  floating  pumice  stone,  i.  267. 

on  material  held  in  suspension,  i.  80. 

on  shallow-water  deposits,  i.  280. 

on  solvent  action  of  sea  water,  i.  65. 

on  Tahiti  Reef,  i.  77,  88. 

on  typical  bottom  deposits  of  Caribbean, 
i.  288. 

on  use  of  tow-net  in  deep  water,  i.  202. 

Report  on  submarine  deposits,  i.  xxi. 
Murray  and  Abb^  Renard  on  bottom  deposits, 

i.  261. 
Murray   and   Pourtales,  on  bottom  deposits 

south  of  Cape  Hatteras,  i.  275. 
Mysis,  1.  179,  193. 
Mjrxine  glutinosa,  ii.  36. 


Myzostoma  Agassizii,  ii.  127. 
Myzostoma  cysticolum,  ii.  127. 
Myzostoma  filicauda,  ii.  127. 
Myzostomida;,  Report  on,  by   L.   v.  Graff, 


Nanomya,  i.  181. 
Nares,  i.  44. 
Naj-es  Deep,  i.  106. 
Nebalia,  i.  193. 

Nectx)teuthis  Pourtalesii,  ii.  59. 
Nematoearcinus  cursor,  ii.  46. 
Nematocarcinus  ensiferus,  ii.  46,  47. 
Nemertinse,  ii.  52. 
Nemichthys  scolopaceus,  ii.  34,  35. 
Neohela  pasma,  ii.  49. 
Neolampas  rostellata,  ii.  97,  98. 
Nephropsis  Agassizii,  ii.  43,  44. 
Nettastoma  procerum,  ii.  34,  35. 
Nevis,  island  of,  i.  xvi. 

New  England  coast,  Agassiz  on  wearing  of, 
i.  122. 

cold  belt  along,  i.  119. 

warm  belt  along,  i.  119. 
New  Zealand,  relation  to  Australia,  i.  125. 
New  Zealand  fauna,  Hutton  on,  i.  122. 
Nicholas    and     Santaren    channels,     Hemy 

Mitchell  on,  i.  235. 
Noctiluea,  i.  196. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  196. 
Nodosaria,  list  of  varieties  of,  ii.  166. 
Nodosaria  communis,  ii.  166. 
Nodosaria  radieula,  ii.  166. 
Nordenskicild,  i.  42. 
Norman,  A.  M.,  i.  43. 

on  deep-sea  North  Atlantic  species,  i.  162. 
Norse   navigators  and  Labrador  current,  i. 

250. 
North  America,  at  time  of  chalk,  i.  133. 

archsean  continent  of,  i.  1 29. 
North  Atlantic,  area  of  maximum  tempera- 
ture in,  i.  243. 

isolation  of,  i.  243. 
Notacanthus  phasganorus,  ii.  30. 
Notostomus,  ii.  47. 
Nourse,  C.  J.,  i.  x,  32. 
Norway  haddock,  ii.  24. 
Nucleolidae,  ii.  97. 
Nullipores,  masses  of,  i.  82. 
Nummulinidse,  ii.  169. 
Nymphon,  ii.  50. 

Ocean  water,  Bognslawski  on  solids  in,  i.  129. 
density  of  at  equator,  i.  248. 
Dittmar  on  solids  in,  i.  129. 
solvent  power  of,  i.  147. 


INDEX. 


211 


Oceanic  basins,  Agassiz,  L.,  on,  i.  4. 

Kriiiuiuel  on,  i.  V20. 

permanence  of,  i.  125. 

pressure  on  rocks  below,  i.  132. 

soundings  in,  by  ' '  Challenger, ' '  i.  260. 

tempei-ature  of,  i.  24(J. 

Thomson,  C.  Wyville,  on,  i.  4. 

topography  of,  i.  107- 
Oceanic  circulation,  tradewind  theory   of,  i. 
247. 

Thomson's  theory  of,  i.  247. 
Oceanic  currents,  theories  of,  i.  247. 

in  past  ages,  i.  128. 

slow  movements  of,  i.  302. 
Oceanic  deposits,  organic  ooze  and  red  clay 

of,  i.  264. 
Oceanic  districts,  salinity  of,  i.  248. 
Oceanic  islands,  i.  117. 
Oceanic  realms,  specialization  of,  i.  160. 
Oceanic  temperature,  disturbing  factors  of,  i. 

248. 
Ocyroe  cristallina,  ii.  129. 
Ocyroij,  Fewkes,  J.  W. ,  on,  ii.  129. 
Ocyroe  raaculata,  ii.  129. 
Oersted  on  bathyraetrical  belts,  i.  162. 
Old  Bahama  Channel,  i.  2. 
Old-fashioned    types    in    shallow    water,    i. 

156. 
Oolitic  and  breccia  limestone  at  Loggerhead 

Key,  i.  76. 
Oolitic  limestone,  modern,  i.  286. 
Ooze  adapted  for  preservation  of  animals,  i. 

170. 
Ophiactis  swarming  on  sponges,  ii.  113. 
Ophidiidae,  ii.  56. 
Ophidium  cervinura,  ii.  26. 
Ophiemus,  ii.  5. 

Ophiocamax  hystrix,  ii.  5,  110,  111,  114. 
Ophioconis  miliaria,  ii.  Ill,  112. 
Ophiocreas,  ii.  5. 

Ophiocreas  spinulosus,  ii.  109,  114. 
Ophiohelus  umbella,  ii.  116. 
Ophiolipus  Agassizii,  ii.  115. 
Ophiomastus  secundus,  ii.  113. 
Ophiomitra  valida,  ii.  115. 
Ophiomusiura  Lymani,  ii.  114. 
Ophiomusium  planum,  ii.  Ill,  112. 
Ophiomyces  fnitectosus,  ii.  Ill,  113. 
Ophiomyxa  flaccida,  ii.  113. 
Ophiopsepale  Goesiana,  ii.  111. 
Ophiophyllum  petilum,  ii.  110. 
Ophiothrix,  colonies  of,  ii.  113. 
Ophiozona  nivea,  ii.  5,  110. 
Ophiura  Elaps,  ii.  111. 
Ophiurans,  ii.  109. 

bathyraetrical  range  of,  ii.  114. 


Ophiurans,  known  previous  to  "  Blake  "  Ex- 
pedition, ii.  5. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  199. 

Report  on,  by  T.  Lyman,  i.  xxi. 
Ophiuridas,  Lyman  on,  ii.  109. 
Opisthoteuthis  Agassizii,  ii.  58. 
Oplophorus,  ii.  47. 

Orbicidina  adunca,  ii.  160.  , 

Orbitolites,  ii.  160,  161. 
Orbulina,  i.  194. 
Orbulina  universa,  ii.  166,  167. 

Krohn  on,  ii.  167. 

Pourtall's  on,  ii.  167. 
Organic  matter,  at  distance  from  shore,  lim- 
ited supply  of,  i.  269. 

as  food  for  deep-sea  life,  i.  313. 

held  in  suspension  near  shore,  i.  269. 
Organs  of  sense,  in  deep-sea  fishes,  ii.  22. 

great  development  of,  in  embryos,  i.  176. 
Organs  of  vision  of  deep-sea  invertebrates,  i. 

165. 
Orthagoriscus,  i.  193. 
Oscillations  of  earth's  surface,  i.  126. 
Ostracods,  ii.  51. 
Ostraconotus  spatulipes,  ii.  42.' 
Otoliths  of  fishes,  in  bottom  deposits,  i.  281. 

in  fine  muds,  i.  145. 
Otter,  von,  i.  42,  139 ;  ii.  142. 
Oxygen  and  carbonic  acid  in  sea  water,  i.  297. 
Oxygen  in  sea  water,  Dittmar  on,  i.  295. 

Jacobsen  on,  i.  29.5. 

Pacific  and  Atlantic  isotherms,  i.  248. 

Pselopatides  confundens,  ii.  88. 

Paguroidea,  ii.  40. 

Palsechinid^e,  ii.  94. 

Palaeotropus  Josephinse,  ii.  100. 

Paleopneustes  hystrix,  ii.  100. 

Palinurus,  i.  175. 

Pallenopsis,  ii.  50. 

Panceri  on  phosphorescence  of  marine  ani- 
mals, i.  198. 

Pandalus,  ii.  46. 

Paracyathus  confertus,  ii.  149,  150. 

Parasitic  algae,  Geza  Entz  on,  i.  214. 

Parasitic  fungus,  P.  M.  Duncan  on,  i.  166. 

Parasitism,  different  kinds  of,  i.  21.5. 

Parry  on  deep-sea  temperatures,  i.  46. 

Passage  of  littoral  to  abyssal  regions,  ii.  7. 

Passages  between  Windward  Islands  swept 
clean,  i.  236. 

Patterson,  Carlile  P.,    i.  vii,  49. 

Patterson  Deep,  i.  106. 

Pecten  Dalli,  ii.  72.  t 

Pecten  phrygium,  ii.  72.  • 

Pecten  Pourtillesianum,  ii.  73. 


212 


INDEX. 


Pedata,  ii.  84, 

Pediculati,  ii.  30. 

Pedro  Bank,  formation  of,  i.  69. 

Peirce,  Benjamin,  i.  49,  122. 

Pelagic  algae,  i,  208. 

Darwin  on,  i.  208. 
Pelagic  animals,  at  great  depths,  i.  200. 

carcasses  of,  on  bottom,  i.  313. 

colors  of,  i.  171. 

distribution  of,  i.  1G9. 

great  destruction  of,  i.  205. 

habitat  of,  i.  177. 

living  at  intermediate  depths,  i.  185. 

method  of  collecting,  i.  179. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  171. 

protective  agencies  to,  i.  205. 

range  in  depth  of,  i.  1 77. 

range  of,  i.  306. 

struggle  for  food  of,  i.  205. 

struggle  for  existence  in,  i.  204. 
Pelagic  annelids,  i.  193. 
Pelagic  cephalopods,  i.  191. 
Pelagic  Crustacea,  i.  193. 
Pelagic  deposits,  i.  143. 
Pelagic  embryos,  i.  175. 
Pelagic  fauna,  i.  .34,  121. 

"  Challenger"  naturalists  on  the,  i.  35. 

Moseley  on  the  origin  of  the,  i.  208. 

of  eastern  Caribbean,  i.  198. 

of  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  198. 

of  Gulf  Stream,  i.  203. 

of  Swiss  Lake,  Forel  on,  i.  199. 

origin  of,  i.  208. 

sinking  of,  i.  202. 
Pelagic  fauna  and  flora,  i.  171. 

sinking  of,  i.  203. 
Pelagic  fishes,  ii.  9. 

large  size  of  some,  i.  193. 

localities  of,  ii.  22. 

organs  of  sense  of,  i.  176. 

phosphorescence  of,  i.  177. 
Pelagic  f  oraminif  era,  Bailey  on,  i.  272. 
Pelagic  globigerinae,  i.  193. 
Pelagic  hemiptera,  i.  179. 
Pelagic  larvae,  transportation  of,  i.  208. 
Pelagic  moUusks,  i.  187. 
Pelosina,  ii.  162. 
Pemberton,  J.  H.,  i.  32. 
Penseida;,  ii.  47. 

Pennatula  aciJeata,  ii.  142,  143. 
Pennatulse,  phosphorescence  of,  ii.  142. 
Pentacheles  sculptus,  ii.  42,  43. 
Pentaerinidse,  relation  of,  ii.  116. 
Pentaerinin,  i.  309. 

Pentacrinoids,    depths    at    which    found,    i. 
144. 


Pentacrinus  asterius,  ii.  116,  117. 

Pentacrinus,  bathymetrical  range  of,  i.  169. 

Pentacrinus  Blakei,  ii.  119. 

Pentacrinus  deeorus,  ii.  118,  119. 

Pentacrinus,  forest  of,  ii.  7. 
mode  of  life,  ii.  118. 
!  Pentacrinus  ground,  i.  viii. 
I  Pentacrinus  Miilleri,  ii.  118,  119. 

Pentagonaster  ternalis,  ii.  102. 

Periphylla  hyacinthina,  ii.  131,  132. 

Peristedium  longispatha,  ii.  30. 
,  P^ron,  i.  48. 

Perrier,  E. ,  Report  on  Starfishes,  i.  xxi. 
!  on  derivation  of  abyssal  fauna,  i.  155. 

i  on  starfishes  of  the  "Blake,"  ii.  102. 

Persons,  i.  32. 

Peterman  on  Florida  Stream,  i.  257. 
j  Peters,  G.  H.,  i.  viii,  32. 

Petromyzon  marinus,  ii.  36. 
[  PhakeUia  tenax,  ii.  177,  178. 
I  Phascolosoma,  in  Dentalium,  ii.  52. 

Pheronema  Annas,  ii.  174,  175. 

Philozocin,  Geddes  on,  i.  214. 

Philozoon  and  Polyclonia,  association    of,   i. 
215. 

Philozoon  and  Velella,  association  of,  i.  215. 

Phipps,  deep-sea  temperatures  by,  i.  46. 

Phoberus  ccecus,  ii.  44,  45. 

Phosphorescent  animals.   Carpenter,  W.  B., 
and  Thomson  on,  i.  .308. 
Moseley  on,  i.  308. 

Phormosoma  placenta,  ii.  95. 

Phorus,  inhabited  by  annelids,  ii.  52. 

Phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime,  Murray  on 
deposition  of,  i.  282. 

Phosphatie  concretions,  Murray  on,  i.  281. 

Phosphorescence,  of  marine  animals,  Panceri 
on,  i.  199. 
of  pelagic  fishes,  i.  179. 
of  ophiurans,  i.  199. 
Verrill  on  protective,  i.  308. 

Phronima,  i.  176. 

Phronima  and  Doliolum,    association   of,  i. 
215. 

Phycis  Chesteri,  ii.  26,  27. 

Phycis  fossil,  ii.  25. 

Phycis  regius,  electric,  ii.  23. 

Phyllosoma,  larval  stage  of,  i.  175. 

Physalia,  i.  180. 

Physical  conditions,  variations  of,  in  contigu- 
ous areas,  i.  154. 

Physophores,  ii.  133. 

Pikermi,  mammals  of,  i.  124. 

Pilumnus,  ii.  .38. 

Pisagua,  elevation  of  coast  near,  i.  129. 

Pisolambrus  nitidus,  ii.  37,  38. 


INDEX. 


213 


Plagiisia,  i.  175. 

range  of  vision  of,  i.  177. 
Plants,  absent  in  deep  water,  i.  107. 
Piatt,  R.,  i.  xii. 
Platydia  anoiuioides,  ii.  77. 
Plectronuis  suborbitalis,  ii.  28. 
Pleurocarpa  ramosa,  ii.  137. 
Pleiiropiis,  i.  1S7. 

Plenrotonia  (Ancistrosyrinx)  elegans,  ii.  60. 
Pleurotuma  Blakeana,  ii.  06. 
Plenrotonia  curta,  ii.  (id. 
Plenrotonia  limacina,  ii.  66. 
Plenrotoma  siibgrundifera,  ii.  tHh 
Pleurotoniaria  Adansoniana,  ii.  69. 
Plenrotoniaria,    bathymetrical   range   of,    i. 

160. 
Plenrotomaria  Quoyana,  ii.  69. 
Plenrotoniidie,  ii.  (id. 
Pliobotlims  synimetrieus,  ii.  138,  139. 
Plumnlaridse,  ii.  13."). 
PneumodeiTuon,  i.  121. 
Podocidaris  sculpta,  ii.  92. 
PoUicipes,  ii.  51. 
Polycistinae,  i.  195. 
Polyclonia,  i.  177. 

lives  on  the  bottom,  i.  185. 
Polymorphina  ovata,  ii.  166. 
Polyps,  ii.  142. 
Polystomella  erispa,  ii.  169. 
Polystomellae,  i.  271. 
Polytrema  miniaceum,  ii.  169. 
Pomalostegus  stellatus,  ii.  57. 
"  Porcupine,"  i.  24.5. 

cruise  of  the,  i.  40. 

deep-sea  temperatures  by,  i.  46. 

expedition  of  the,  i.  43. 
Porina  subsulcata,  ii.  82. 
Pontes  clavaria,  i.  82. 
Porites  embryo,  i.  74. 
Porites  f  urcata,  i.  82. 
Porocidaris,  i.  158. 
Porocidaris  Sharreri,  ii.  90,  91. 
Poromya,  ii.  73. 
Porpita,  i.  121,  180. 
Porpitidje,  affinities  of,  i.  184. 
Port  de  France,  i.  xvi. 
Porto  Rico,  land  shells  of,  i.  115. 
Pourtales,  L.  F.,  i.  vii,  3. 

exploration  of,  in  "  Bibb,"  i.  45. 

exploration  of,  in  "Corwin,"  i.  45. 

on  affinity  of  deep-sea  corals  and  tertiary 
fossils,  ii.  17. 

on  boundary  of  siliceous  sand,  i.  279. 

on  characteristic  foraminifera,  i.  271. 

on  corals  of  the  "Blake,"  ii.  148. 

on  corals  of  West  Indies,  ii.  18. 


Pourtales,  L.  F.,  on  deep-sea  corals  and  ter- 
tiary types,  ii.  19. 

on  penetration  of  light,  i.  305. 

Report  on  Corals,  i.  xxi. 
PourfaU^s  Deep,  i.  lOt). 
Pourtales  Plateau,  i.  62,  284,  286. 

fauna  of,  i.  91. 
Pourtalesia  miranda,  ii.  101. 
Pourtalesiaj,  i.  159. 

affinities  of,  ii.  101. 

forerumiera  of  spatangoids,  ii.  97. 
Praya,  ii.  135. 

Pre-archsean  continent,  i.  127. 
Preservation  of  animals  in  bottom  deposits, 

i.  170. 
Pressure,  adaptation  of  marine  animals  to, 
i.  304. 

range  of,  for  marine  animals,  i.  301. 
Primnoa  Pourtalesii,  ii.  146. 
Primordial  ocean,  fauna  of,  i.  153. 

Mallet  on,  i.  153. 
Protoplasm,  i.  149. 
Protozoans  without  solid  tests,  ii.  157. 
Pseudodiadematidae,  i.  159. 
Psolus  tuberculosus,  ii.  85. 
Psychropotes  longicauda,  ii.  86. 
Pterophryne,  nest  of,  ii.  31. 
Pterophysa  grandis,  i.  184. 
Pteropod  and  globigerina  ooze,  i.  264. 
Pteropod  ooze,  depth  at  which  it  appears,  i. 
.50,  147. 

depth  at  which  found,  i.  265. 

in  Straits  of  Florida,  i.  283. 
Pteropod    shells,    in    globigerina    ooze,    i. 

28;?. 

decay  and  solution  of,  i.  283. 

MuiTay  on  solution  of,  i.  283. 
Pteropod     silt    in    Windward    Passage,    i. 

2.35. 
Pteropods,  i.  190. 
Pterotrachea,  i.  191. 
Ptychogena  lactea,  ii.  128. 
Pulvinulina  auricula,  ii.  169. 
Pulvinulina  Menardii,  ii.  169. 
Pumice,  decomposition  of,  i.  267. 

floated  out  to  sea,  i.  267. 

taken  by  tow-net,  i.  267. 
Pycnogonidae,  eyes  of,  ii.  39. 

Report  on,  by  E.  B.  Wilson,  i.  xxi. 
Pycnogonids,  ii.  49. 
Pylocheles  Agassizii,  ii.  40. 
P3rrosoma,  i.  187. 
Pyrosomae,  i.  198. 

Qaoy  and  Gaimard  on  limit  of  reef-building 
corals,  i.  74. 


2M 


INDEX. 


Radiaster  elegans,  li.  104. 
Radiella  sol,  ii.  179. 
Radiolarian  earth  of  Barbados,  ii.  157. 
Radiolariau  ooze,  i.  2(36. 

Radiolarians,  Johannes  Miiller  on  yellow  ceUs 
of,  i.  213. 

E.  Haeckel  on  yellow  cells  of,  i.  213. 

siliceous  species  of,  ii.  157. 
Raised  terraces  of  Caribbean  district,  ii.  19. 
Ramsay  on  geological  time,  i.  139. 
Range  of  species,  ii.  12. 
Rawson,  Rawson  W.,  ii.  123. 
Reade,  M.,  on  eheniical  denudation,  i.  128. 
Record  of  dredging  and  trawling,  i.  32. 
Red  clay  deposit,  i.  267. 

basin  of,  in  Eastern  Atlantic,  i.  293. 

basin  of,  in  South  Atlantic,  i.  293. 

discovery  of,  by  "  Challenger,"  i.  292. 

in  Western  Atlantic,  i.  292. 

slow  rate  of  accumulation  of,  i.  268. 
Redonda,  island  of,  i.  xvi. 
Regadella  phoenix,  ii.  172,  173. 
Regalecus  Jonesii,  ii.  28. 
Regnard    and    Certes    on    decay    at    great 

depths,  i.  203. 
Regnard  on  effect  of  pressure,  i.  305,  314. 
Rein  on  undermining  of  Bermuda,  i.  87. 
Renard  on  St.  Paul's  Rocks,  i.  127. 
Rennell,  i.  247. 
Reophax  seorpiurus,  ii.  163. 
Reptiles,    distribution    of,   by    driftwood,   i. 
122. 

relation  of  West  Indian,  i.  115. 
Retepora  reticulata,  ii.  82.  , 

Reuss  on  tertiary  corals,  ii.  18. 
Reynolds,  E.  L.,  i.  viii,  32. 
Rhabdammina  abyssorum,  ii.  162,  163. 
Rhabdammina  linearis,  ii.  163. 
Rhabdocidaris,  radioles  of,  ii.  90. 
Rhabdoliths,  i.  209. 
Rhabdospheres,  i.  209. 
Rhamphobrachium  Agassizii,  ii.  55. 
Rhizochalina,  ii.  177. 
Rhizocrinus,  dredged  by  Pourtal^s,  i.  285. 

discovery  of,  i.  43. 

fields  of,  ii.  118. 

range  of,  ii.  15. 
Rhizocrinus  lofotensis,  ii.  120,  121. 
Rhizocrinus  Rawsoni,  ii.  121. 
Rhizopod  earth  of  Barbados,  i.  79. 
Rhizopods,  ii.  157. 

association  of  arenaceous  and  siliceous, 
ii.  158. 

calcareous,  living  on  bottom,  ii.  159. 

Goes  on  Caribbean,  ii.  157. 
Rhizophysa,  i.  185. 


Rhizophysidse,  ii.  133. 
Rhizostomse,  live  on  bottom,  ii.  130. 
Rhizotrochus  fragilis,  ii.  151. 
Rhombodichthys,  i.  175. 
Rhynchopygus  caribaearum,  ii.  97. 
Ribbon  fishes,  ii.  28. 

Ridge,  between  Atlantic  and  Arctic  oceans, 
i.  242. 

from  Sauta  Cruz  to  Porto  Rico,  i.  98, 
112. 
Ringgold,  i.  48. 

Ringieula  leptocheila,  ii.  69,  70. 
Riugiculidie,  ii.  09. 
Rocinela  oculata,  ii.  48. 
Rocky  banks  off  the  Carolinas,  i.  276. 
Rodgers,  i.  48. 

Roebling  and  Sons,  wire  rope  of,  i.  29. 
Rogers,   H.    D.,  on  character  of  Florida,   i. 

67. 
Rogers,  W.  R.,  i.  47. 
Rondelet's  Medusa  head,  ii.  113. 
Ross,  James,  i.  39. 

Jas.  C,  i.  42,  44. 
Rosses  on  deep-sea  temperatures,  i.  46. 
Riigosa,  Ludwig  on,  ii.  154. 

Milne-Edwards  and  Haime  on,  ii.  154. 
Ryder  on  organs  of  lateral  line,  ii.  36. 

Saba  Bank,  i.  xv. 
Saba,  island  of.  i.  xv. 
Sabinea  princeps,  ii.  45. 
Sagartia  abyssicola,  ii.  147. 
Sagitta,  i.  193. 
Sagrina  dimoipha,  ii.  166. 
Saintes,  the,  i.  xvi. 
Salenia,  i.  158 ;  ii.  90. 

apical  system  of,  ii.  91. 

suranal  plates  of,  ii.  91. 

young,  ii.  92. 
Salenia  Pattersoni,  ii.  90,  91. 
Salenia  varispina,  ii.  90,  91. 
Salinity  of  sea  water,  i.  300. 
Salpa,  i.  187. 

large  solitary  form  and  chain,  i.  189. 

masses  of,  i.  171. 
Salpa  Caboti,  i.  190. 
Salpse,  sudden  appearance  of,  i.  190. 
Salts,  distribution  of  by  animals,  i.  153. 
Sander  Rang  on  Holopus,  ii.  123. 
Sandy  bottom  of  East  Coast,  i.  285. 
Sandy  deposits,  where  found,  i.  270. 
Santa  Cruz,  "Albatross"  on  ridge  between 
it  and  Porto  Rico.  i.  98. 

connection     with     Porto     Rico  and    St. 
Thomas,  i.  112. 

island  of,  i.  xiv. 


INDEX. 


215 


Santa  Cruz  molliisks,  affinities  of  the,  i.  112. 
Saporta  on  formation  of  earth's  cruist,  i.  140. 
Sapphirina,  i.  171. 
Sarasin  and  Fol  on  penetration  of  light,  i. 

30"),  300. 
Sarasin  and  Soret  on  penetration  of  light,  i. 

300. 
Sargasso  Sea,  i.  209. 

Columbus  on,  i.  213. 

"Talisman"  Expedition  on,  i.  211. 
Sargassum,  i.  121,  210- 

animals  inhabiting  the,  i.  212. 

animals  living  upon,  i.  213. 

J.  R.  Bartlett  oh,  i.  211. 

Alph.  Milne-Edwards  on,  i.  212. 

Moseley  on  fructification  of,  i.  212. 

north  of  Cape  Hatteras,  i.  211. 

rejiroductive  organs  of,  i.  212. 
Sargiussiim  bank,  origin  of,  i.  213. 
Sargassunx  fields,  off  Porto  Rico  and  San  Do- 
mingo, i.  211. 
Sara,  G.  O.,  i.  44,  204. 

deep  dredging  off  Norway,  i.  42. 

on  Rhizocrinus,  i.  285. 
Sars,  M. ,  animals  from  great  depths,  i.  42. 

on  Rhizocrinus  lofotensis,  ii.  120. 
Scseorhynchus  armatus,  ii.  50,  51. 
Scalpellum  regium,  ii.  50. 
Scammon,  J.  Young,  ii.  xi. 
Schizaster,  fascioles  of,  ii.  98. 
Schizopods,  large  size  of,  ii.  48. 
Schmidtia  aulopora,  ii.  178. 
Schmidt,  O.,  Report  on  Sponges,  i.  xxi. 
Schultze,  Max,  i.  35. 

on  chlorophyll  in  planarians,  i.  213. 
Scombroids,  ii.  28. 
Scopelidae,  ii.  33. 
Scopelus,  ii.  24. 

luminosity  of,  ii.  33. 

Miilleri,  ii.  33. 
Scoresby  on  deep-sea  temperatures,  i.  46. 
Scorp^ena,  ii.  29. 
Sculpins,  ii.  29. 

Scutellae,  absence  of  in  deep  water,  ii.  97. 
Sea-urchins,  ii.  88. 

A.  Agassiz,  Report  on,  i.  xxi. 

geographical  range  of,  ii.  10. 

known   previous  to  "Blake"   Expedi- 
tion, ii.  4. 

oldest  known,  ii.  94. 
Sea  water,  air  in,  i.  297. 

analysis  of,  i.  21. 

Buchanan,   J.  Y. ,  chemistry  of,  i.  23. 

Buchanan,  J.  Y.,   on  oxygen  in,  i.  295. 

Dittmar  composition  of,  i.  29(5. 

Dittmar  report  on  san)ples  of,  i.  290. 


Sea  water,  Dittmar  on  solvent  action  of,  i.  283. 

elements  in  solution  in,  i.  29ti, 

Jacobsen  on  gaseous  elements  of,  i.  294. 

Murray  on  earbonatfe  of  lime  in,  i.  05. 

Murray  on  solvent  action  of,  i.  65. 

organic  matter  in,  i.  205. 

specific  gravity  of,  i.  20. 
Secchi,  on  penetration  of  colors,  i.  305. 
Sedimentary  rocks,  thickness  of,  i.  130. 
Seeds,  transportation  of,  i.  180. 
Seguenza,  on  deep-sea  fossil  corals,  ii.  19. 

on  deep-sea  pliocene,  i.  145. 

on  tertiary  corals,  ii.  18. 
Selachians,  deep-sea,  ii.  36. 

Garman,  S.,  Report  on,  i.  xxi. 
Semper,  i.  76. 

on  coral  reefs,  i.  76. 
Serpulae,  masses  of,  i.  83. 
Serpulidse,  at  great  depth,  ii.  57. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  57. 
Setidium  obtectum,  ii.  176. 
Sharks  in  Lake  Nicaragua,  i.  153. 
Sharks  and  whales,  remains  of,  on  bottom, 

i.  268. 
Sharks' teeth,  dredged  by  "Challenger,"  i. 
145. 

found  by  "  Challenger,"  i.  276. 

in  concretions,  i.  276. 
Sharpies,  analysis  of  corals,  i.  62,  148. 

analysis  of  rock  of   Pourtal6s  Plateau, 
i.  288. 
Sharrer,  W.  O.,  i.  viii,  32. 
"  Shearwater,"  cruise  of,  i.  40. 
Sheaves  for  dredging,  i.  33. 
Shore  lines  and  hydrographic  basins,  i.  100. 
Siemens,  C.  W.,  bathometer,  i.  6. 

electrical  thermometer,  i.  17. 
Sigsbee,  C.  D.,  i.  viii,  32. 

accumulator,  i.  6. 

collecting  cylinder,  i.  36,  200. 

deep-sea  sounding  and  dredging,  i.  51. 

detacher,  i.  3. 

exploration  of  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  50. 

first  dredging  season  in  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
i.  37. 

gravitating  trap,  i.  36. 

on  movements  of  Pentacrinus,  ii.  119. 

Pentacrinus  ground,  ii.  6. 

sounding  machine,  i.  6. 
Sigsbee  Deep,  i.  102. 
Sigsbee,  L.  P.,  i.  x,  32. 
Sigsbeia,  ii.  114. 
Sigsbeia  murrhina,  ii.  5. 
Silica,  carried  out  to  sea,  i.  150. 

supply  of,  due  to  deep-sea  sponges,  L 
149. 


216 


INDEX. 


Siliceous  bottom  deposits  of  Caribbean,  i.  289. 
Siliceous  sponges,  abundance  of,  i.  149. 
Siliquaria  modesta,  ii.  71. 
Silt,  accumulation  of,  ofF  Hatteras,  i.  292. 

deposition    of,    to   south    of  Windward 
Passage,  i.  292. 

deposits  of,  i.  141. 

precipitation  of,  i.  138. 

transfer  of  masses  of,  i.  131. 
Siphonophores,  ii.  132. 

bathynietrical  range  of,  i.  185. 
Skates,  deep-water  types  of,  i.  193. 
Slime,  organic,  at  great  deptlis,  i.  203. 
Smith,  E.  A.,  on  geology  of  Florida,  i.  110. 
Smith  and  Hilgard  on  the  Florida  backbone, 

i.  61. 
Smith,  S.  I.,  on  range  of  Crustacea,  ii.  16. 

Report  on  Crustacea,  i.  xxi. 
Smitt,  i.  42. 

on  range  of  bryozoa,  ii.  1.5. 

Report  on  Bryozoa,  i.  xxi. 
Snappers,  ii.  28. 
Solaster  endeca,  ii.  103. 
Solenodon,  i.  114. 

Solid  matter,  held  in  solution,  i.  128. 
Solution  of  shells  in  deep  water,  i.  147. 
Sombrero,  island  of,  i.  xix. 
Sorosphera  confusa,  ii.  162. 
Sounding,  accumulator  used  in,  i.  8. 

deepest,  by  Brownson,  i.  50,  238. 

deepest,  made,  i.  97. 

error  in,  i.  12. 

in  currents,  i.  1. 

line  for,  i.  2. 

records  of,  i.  1.3. 

reel  for,  i.  7. 

reeling  in  pidley  for,  i.  8. 

register  for,  i.  8. 

time  occupied  in,  i.  12,  13. 
Soundings,  along  course  of  Gulf  Stream,  Bai- 
ley on  character  of,  i.  272. 

along  New  England  by  U.  S.  Fish  Com- 
mission, i.  273. 

extraordinary,  i.  1. 

from  Havana  to  Bahia  Honda,  i.  ix. 

from  Havana  to  Sand  Key,  i.  ix. 
Soundings:  horizontal  distance  between  the 
one  hundred  and  the  fifteen  hundred 
fathom  line,  i.  101. 

one  hundred  fathom  line,  course  of,  i.  93. 

one    hundred   fathom   line,    absence    of 
south  of  Hatteras,  i.  135. 

one  hundred  fathom  line,  George's  Bank 
to  Hatteras,  i.  93. 

one  hundred  fathom  line  south  of  Hat- 
teras, i.  93. 


Soundings :  one  hundred  fathom  line  of  West 
India  Islands,  i.  111. 

five  hundred  fathom  line  of  West  India 
Islands,  i.  Ill,  112. 

off  Montauk  Point,  Bailey  on,  i.  272. 

one  thousand  fathom  line,  i.  90. 

two  thousand  fathom  line,  i.  96. 

two  thousand  fathom  line  north  of  Cape 
Canaveral,  i.  96. 

twenty-five  hundred  fathom  line,  i.  97. 
Sounding  wire,  weight  of,  i.  11. 
Sounding  with  wire,  i.  2. 

advantage  of ,  i.  11. 

by  "Blake,"  i.  50. 

Thomson  on,  i.  4. 
South  America,  before  the  tertiary  period, 
i.  110. 

disconnected    from    North    America,    i. 
116. 
South  American  fauna  and  flora,  relations  of, 

i.  109. 
Southern  equatorial  current,  i.  243. 
Southern    fauna,    northern    extension    of,    i. 

119. 
Species,  localization  of,  i.  168. 
Specific  gravity,  of  North  Atlantic,  i.  298. 

of  ocean  water,  i.  298. 

of  rocks  from  great  depths,  i.  287. 

of  sea  water  of  American  coast,  i.  299. 
Sphserozoum,  i.  195. 
Sphargis,  i.  183. 
Spirialis,  1.  265. 
Spirula,  ii.  61. 

shell  of,  i.  169. 
Spitzbergen,  rising  of  coast  of,  i.  129. 
Sponges,  ii.  170. 

color  of  deep-sea,  i.  312. 

distribution  of,  ii.  17. 

Haeckel  on  individuality  of,  ii.  170. 

in  shallow  waters  of  cretaceous,  i.  149. 

of    the  "Blake,"    Schmidt  on  the,   ii. 
170. 

on  West  Bank  of  Florida,  i.  149. 

Report  on,  by  O.  Schmidt,  i.  xxi. 

Schmidt  on  individuality  of,  ii.  170. 

siliceous,  absent  on  east  coast  of  U.  S., 
ii.  170. 
Sponge  sarcode,  i.  149. 
Squids,  giant  species  of,  i.  191. 
St.  Eustatius,  island  of,  i.  xv. 
St.  Kitts,  island  of,  i.  xv. 
St.  Lucia,  island  of,  i.  xvii. 
St.  Paul's  Rocks,  i.  127. 
St.  Pierre,  i.  xvi. 
St.  Thomas,  island  of,  i.  xiv. 
St.  Vincent,  island  of,  i.  xviii. 


INDEX. 


217 


Stalked  crinoids,  ii.  116. 
Stai-fishes,  ii.  102. 

bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  107. 

known  previous  to   "Blake"   Expedi- 
tion, ii.  4. 

prominent  deep-sea  families,  ii.  102. 

Report  on,  by  E.  Perrier,  i.  xxi. 
Staurophora,  i.  177. 
Stauroteuthis,  i.  191. 
Steindachneria,  ii.  26. 
JStellwagen    cup,    samples   brought   up   by, 

i.  261. 
Stenocyathiis  venniforrais,  ii.  148. 
Stenoteiitliis,  i.  191. 
Stenoteuthis  Bartrami,  ii.  58. 
Stephanoniia,  i.  184. 
Stephanotrochus  diadema,  ii.  149,  150. 
Stemoptyx  diaphana,  ii.  22. 
Sthenelais  simplex,  ii.  .54. 
Stichopus  natans,  ii.  8.5. 
Stimpson,  i.  48. 

Straits  of  Florida,  warm  current  from,  i.  241. 
Studer,  on  coral  reefs,  i.  76. 

on  deep-sea  siphonophores,  i.  184. 
Stylaster  filogranus,  ii.  139,  140. 
Stylasteridae,  ii.  188. 
Stylifer,  ii.  64. 

Stimpson  on,  parasitic  of  annelids,  ii.  64. 
Styliola,  i.  187,  265. 
Stylodaetylus,  ii.  4(5. 
Stylorhiza  stipitata,  ii.  177. 
Submarine  banks,  discovered  by  "  Challen- 
ger," i.  64. 

discovered  by  "  Tuscarora,"  i.  64. 
Submarine  cables,  i.  2. 
Submarine  deposits,  i.  260. 

John  Murray,  Report  on,  i.  xxi. 
Submarine  disturbances,  i.  104. 
Submarine  landscapes,  i.  103. 
Submarine  plateaux,  formation  of,  i.  77. 
Submarine  ridges,  i.  245. 
Submarine  scenery,  monotony  of,  i.  106. 
Submarine  slopes,  steepness  of,  i.  102. 
Sulcastrella  clausa,  ii.  176. 
Sulphate  of  lime,  amorphous,  i.  149. 
Surface  algae,  field  of,    i.  313. 
Surface  animals  in  bottom  deposits,  i.  285. 
Surface  fauna,  A.  Agassiz,  Report  on,  i.  xxi. 
Swordfish,  sounding  of,  ii.  24. 
Syllis,  phosphorescent  species  of,  i.  199. 
Symbiosis,  i.  215. 

De  Bary  on,  i.  214. 
Synaphobranehus  pinnatus,  ii.  34,  .35. 
Syscenus  infelix,  ii.  48. 

Tactile  oi^sns  of  deep-sea  fishes,  ii.  22. 


"  Talisman,"  Expedition  of  the,  i.  40. 

Tangle  bar,  i.  25. 

Tanner  on  ridge   between  Santa  Cruz  and 

Porto  Rico,  i.  222. 
Tasmania,  relation  to  Australia,  i.  125. 
i  Telegraph  cable,  animals  on,  i.  40. 

Temnechinu.s  maculatus,  ii.  92. 
I  Temperature  at  one  thousand  fathoms,  i.  248. 
Temperature,  belt  of  falling,  i.  801 . 

belt  of  uniform,  i.  801. 

between  Bahamas  and  Bermudas,  i.  237. 

condition  of,  below  five    hundred  fath- 
oms, i.  302. 

differences  of,  over  extensive  areas,   i. 
303. 

effect  upon  fauna  by  change  of,  i.  119. 

highest,  to  which  man  is  subject,  i.  301. 

increase  of,  in  interior  of  th«f  earth,  i.  303. 

in  Florida  Straits,  i.  246. 

lowest,  found  by  "  Challenger,"  i.  246. 

lowest,  found  by  ''Porcupine,"  i.  245. 

lowest,  to  which  man  is  subject,  i.  301. 

of  bottom  of  ocean,  Gardner  on,  i.  182. 

of  eastern  and  western  continental  shores, 
i.  244. 

of  ocean,  Foster  on,  i.  46. 

of  sea-water  of  greatest  density,  i.  248. 

range  of,  for  marine  animals,  i.  301. 

seasonal  differences  of,  i.  246. 
,    uniform  in  deep  water,  i.  164. 
Temperature  and  light  in  the  tropics,  i.  164. 
Tenjperatures,  of  the  Caribbean,  i.  217. 

of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  217. 

of  the  Western  Atlantic,  i.  217. 

off  Barbados,  i.  227. 

off  leeside  Windward  Islands,  i.  228. 

off  Salines  Point,  Grenada,  i.  228. 

variable  belt  of,  i.  247. 
Temperature  sections  : 

across  Mona  Passage,  i.  223. 

across  Windward  Passage,  i.  224. 

across  Yucatan  Channel,  i.  219,  230. 

by  "Albatross"  in  Caribbean,  i.  217. 

from  Cape  Florida  to  Gun  Key,  i.  232. 

from  Dominica  to  Martinique,  i.  222. 

from  Halifax  to  Bermuda,  i.  244. 

from  Jamaica  to  San  Domingo,  i.  225. 

from  Jupiter  Inlet  to  Memory  Rock,  L 
232. 

from  Madeira  to  Tristan  da  Cunha,    i. 
242. 

from  Martinique  to  St.  Lucia,  i.  222. 

from  Mexico  to  Florida,  i.  231. 

from  Pemarabuco  to  Fernando  Noronha, 
i.  227. 

from  Santiago  de  Cuba  to  Jamaica,  i.  226L 


218 


INDEX. 


Temperature  sections : 

from  Sombrero  to  Virgin  Islands,  L  219. 

from  Sombrero  to  Virgin  Gorda,  i.  221. 

from  St.  Lucia  to  St.  Vincent,  i.  223. 

from  St.  Thomas  to  Bermudas,  i.  220. 

from  St.  Thomas  to  Ham's  Bluff,  i.  221. 

from  Teneriffe  to  Sombrero,  i.  244. 

from  Tortugas  to  Cuba,  i.  231. 

from  Tortugas  to  Yucatan,  i.  2.30. 

from  Vera  Cruz  to  Galveston,  i.  231. 

from  Yucatan  Bank  to  Louisiana,  i.  231. 

from  Yucatan  to  Santa  Kosa,  i.  231. 

in  Gulf  of  Mexico,  i.  230. 

in  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Sigsbee  on,  i.  217. 

of  Caribbean  and  east  coast  of  U.  S., 
Bartlett  on,  i.  217. 

off  Cape  Caflaveral,  i.  233. 

off  Cape  May,  i.  239. 

off  Charleston,  S.  C,  i.  233. 

off  Hatteras,  i.  239. 

off  the  middle  states,  i.  238. 

off  Montauk,  i.  239. 

off  New  England,  i.  238,  239. 

off  Sombrero,  i.  220. 

off  St.  Simon's  Island,  Ga.,  i.  233. 
Terebellidag,  bathymetrical  range  of,  ii.  57. 
Terebratula  caput  serpentis,  ii.  77. 
Terebratula  cubensis,  ii.  7(5. 
Terebratulina  Cailleti,  ii.  76,  77. 
Terrestrial  folds,  developed  by  soondings,  i. 

125. 
Terrigenous  deposits,  i.  263. 
Tessadroma  boreale,  ii.  81. 
Tetractinellidse,  ii.  177. 
Textularia  sagittula,  ii.  164. 
Textularia  trochus,  ii.  164,  165. 
Thalassia,  i.  82. 
Thalassicolfe,  i.  195. 
Thalassography,  i.  2. 
Thecocyathus  cylindraceus,  ii.  149. 
Theeopsanimia  socialis,  ii.  153. 
Thecopsammia  tintinnabulum,  ii.  152. 
Th^el,  H.,  Report  on  Holothurians,  i.  xxi. 

on  range  of  holothurians,  ii.  15. 
Thermic  theory  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  i.  249. 
Thomson,  C.  Wyville,  i.  xx,  285. 

on  Atlantic  and  Pacific  gulfs,  i.  242. 

on   concentration    and    precipitation,    i. 
300. 

on  stem  of  Pentacrinus,  ii.  119. 
Thomson  Deep,  i.  106. 

Thomson,  J.  V.,  on  young  Comatula,  ii.  116. 
Thomson,  Wm.,  sounding  machine  of,  i.  4. 
Thurammina  papillata,  ii.  164. 
Tiedemannia,  i.  187. 
Tile  fish,  ii.  29. 


Tile  fish,  destruction  of,  i.  120. 

Tima,  i.  177. 

Tindaria  cytherea,  ii.  72. 

Tisiphonia  fenestrata,  ii.  177. 

Tizard,  i.  44. 

Tobago,  island  of,  i.  xix. 

Tomopteris,  i.  193. 

Torell,  collections  of,  noticed  by  Keferstein, 

i.  42. 
Tortugas,  action  of  the  wind  on  the  reef  of, 
i.  86. 

bank  west  of,  i.  88. 

broken  ground  of,  i.  86. 

description  of  the,  i.  80. 

examination  of,  i.  57. 

fauna  and  flora  of,  i.  90. 

formation  of,  i.  61. 

knoll  of,  i.  59,  89. 

line  from,  to  Yucatan  Bank,  i.  ix. 

line  north  of  the,  i.  ix. 

physiognomy  of  the  coral  reefs  of,  i.  82. 

sections  across  the,  i.  80. 

visit  to,  i.  X. 
Tow-net,  i.  35, 

of  Palumbo,  i.  37. 
Trachyneraa,  i.  183. 

Tradewinds  and  oceanic  currents,  i.  255. 
Transportation  of  land  shells  and  saurians, 

i.  291. 
"  Travailleur, "  Expedition  of  the,  i.  40. 
Trawl,  modification  of,  i.  26. 

used  by  "Blake,"  i.  48. 

used  by  "  Talisman,"  i.  48. 

used  by  U.  S.  Fish  Commission,  i.  48. 
Trawl  weights,  i.  29. 
Trawling,  time  of,  i.  27. 

deepest  of  ''  Blake,"  i.  50. 
Tremaulidium  geminum,  ii.  176. 
Trichiuridse,  ii.  28. 
Trichodesmium  erythrseum,  i.  208. 
Trifoiis  longissimus,  ii.  71. 
Tiigonocidaris  albida,  ii.  92. 
Trinidad,  island  of,  i.  xix. 
"Triton,"  Expedition  of  the,  i.  44. 
Trochidse,  ii.  67. 

Trochostoma  arcticum,  ii.  85,  86. 
Truncatulina  adunca,  i.  271. 
Truncatulina  Ungeriana,  ii.  169. 
Tubularians,  littoral,  ii.  136. 
Turbot  of  New  England,  ii.  23. 
"Tuscarora,"  soundings  by,  i.  260. 
Typhis  longicornis,  ii.  70. 

Udotea,  i.  82. 

Umbellula,  collected  by  Adrians,  i.  40. 

Umbellula  Giintheri,  ii.  142,  143. 


INDEX. 


219 


United  States  Fish  Commission,  i.  xx. 
Upper  tiault,  depth  of  sea  of,  i.  148. 
Urechiuus  nai'esianus,  ii.  101. 

"Valorous,"  Expedition  of  the,  i.  4^. 

Valvulina  triangularis,  ii.  10."). 

Vegetable  parasites,  Wedl  and  Kolliker  on, 

i.  I'SS. 
VeleUa,  i.  180,  183. 
Ventriculites,   Thomson,  C.  Wyville,  on,   ii. 

170. 
Vermetus  erectus,  ii.  71. 
Verrill,  A.  E.,  Report  on  Anthozoa,  i.  xxi. 

on  "Blake"  anthozoa,  ii.  142. 

on  ' '  Blake  ' '  ceplialopods,  ii.  .j8. 

on  color  of  light  at  great  deptlis,  i.  305. 

on  fish  remains,  i.  145. 

on  floating  beach  sand,  i.  274. 

on  pliocene  submarine  fossils,  i.  273. 

on  pi-imitive  types  of  actiniae,  ii.  146. 

on  protective  phosphorescence,  i.  308. 
Verruca  incerta,  ii.  50. 
Vertebrate  bones,  scarcity  of,  i.  144. 
Verticordia  elegantissiraa,  ii.  74. 
Verticordia  perversa,  ii.  74. 
Vesicomya  pilula,  ii.  74. 
Vesicomya  venusta,  ii.  74,  75. 
Vetulina  stalactites,  ii.  175. 
Vicksburg  limestone,  i.  61. 
Vincularia  abyssicola,  ii.  80. 
Virgin  Islands,  i.  105. 

land  shells  of,  i.  116. 

sink  o£f,  i.  104. 

submarine  banks  of  the,  i.  111. 
Volcanic  bottonx  deposits,  i.  290. 
Volcanic  regions,  topography  of  bottom  of, 

i.  104. 
Volcanic  shore  deposits,  i.  289. 
Volcanoes  of  West  Indies,  age  of  the,  i.  109. 
Voluta,  bathymetrieal  range  of,  i.  169. 
Von  Otter,  i.  42  ;  ii.  142. 
"  Voringen,"  expedition  of  the,  i.  44. 
Vorticellidae,  associated  with  other  animals, 
i.  21 5^ 

Waldheimia  iloridana,  ii.  76. 
Wallace,  A.  R.,  i.  109. 

on  age  of  continents  and  oceanic  basins, 
i.  127. 

on  Antillean  continent,  i.  116. 
Wallich,  on  formation  of  flints,  i.  143. 

on  migrations  of  marine  animals,  i.  164. 

on  protoplasmic  deep-sea  layer,  i.  150. 

on  silex  nodules,  i.  150. 

report  on  "  Bulldog"  Expedition,  i.  44, 
45. 


WaUis,  i.  32. 

"Washington,"  Expedition  of  the,  i.  41. 
Water,  disintegrating  action  of  warm,  i.  290. 
Water  cup,  i.  21. 

of  Sigsbee,  i.  21. 

of  Tornoe  and  Wille,  i.  294. 
West  India  Islands,  appearance  of,  i.  xiU. 

elevated  reefs  of,  i.  79. 

eruptive  rocks  of,  i.  110. 

history  of,  i.  111. 

limestone  of,  i.  <>4. 

southern  slope  of,  i.  105. 

time  of  elevation  of,  i.  113. 
West  Indian  bird  fauna,  i.  114. 
West  Indian  cretaceous  rocks,  i.  110. 
West   Indian  deep-sea  fauna,    richness  of, 

ii.  3. 
West  Indian  fauna,  ii.  1. 

immigration  into,  of  Atlantic  types,  i. 
158. 

bfansition  from  old  fauna,  i.  160. 

variety  and  richness  of,  i.  91. 
West  Indian  fauna  and  flora,   origin  of,   i. 
116. 

relations  of,  i.  109. 
West  Indian  marine  animals,  northern  ex- 
tension of,  i.  119. 
West  Indian  miocene  rocks,  i.  110. 
West  Indian  reptiles,  relation  of,  i.  115. 
West  Indian  specific  forms,  i.  116. 
West  Indian  submarine  plateau,  i.  113. 
West  Indian  types,  northern  extension  of,  L 

118. 
West  Indies,   Duncan  on  fossil  corals  of,  i. 
161. 

fossiliferous  rocks  of,  Cleve  on,  i.  109. 

land  tortoise  of,  i.  115. 

mollusk  fauna  of,  i.  114. 
Western  Atlantic,  bird's-eye  view  of,  i.  105. 
Western  Caribbean,  topography  of,  i.  100. 
Western   North  Atlantic,  Avarm  water  of,  L 

243. 
White  chalk,  a  deep-sea  deposit,  i.  146. 

composition  of,  i.  291. 

off  Nuevitas,  i'.  289. 
Wild,  J.  J.,  i.  246. 

Thalassa,  i.  244. 
WillemoesiaB,  ii.  42. 
Willemoes-Suhm  on  luminosity  of  Scopelus, 

ii.  33. 
Wilson,  E.  B.,  ii.  49. 

Report  on  Pygnogonidae,  i.  xxi. 
Winds,  effect  of,  in  depth,  i.  255. 

frictional  effect  of,  i.  247. 
Windward  Islands,  bottom  of  plateau  of,  ii. 
158. 


220 


INDEX. 


Windward   Islauds,    limestone    terraces  of, 

i.  64. 
Windward  Passage,  depth  of,  i.  100. 

Bartlett  on  current  passing  over  ridge 
of,  i.  292. 
Winn,  i.  x. 

Winsor,  Justin,  i.  xxi. 
Wire  rope,  for  dredging,  i.  28. 

kinking  of,  i.  30. 

paying  out  of,  i.  33. 

reel  for,  i.  31. 

telephoning  of,  i.  30. 
Worms,  ii.  52. 
Wright,  i.  X. 
Wyman,  Jeffries,  i.  115. 

Xylopa^oms  rectus,  ii.  40. 


Yucatan  Bank,  i.  141. 

depth  at  foot  of,  i.  101. 

formation  of,  i.  69. 

north  slope  of,  i.  ix. 

Vicksburg  limestone  of,  i.  69. 
Yucatan  Channel,  depth  of,  i.  101. 
Yucatan,  limestone  backbone  of,  i.  110. 

limestone  plateau  of,  i.  72,  122. 

Zanclea,  i.  183. 

Zittel  on  teeth  of  Conoclypus,  ii.  99. 

Zoeppritz  on  friction  of  particles  of  water,  i. 

255. 
Zoi^eographical  divisions,  i.  264. 
Zoroaster  Ackleyi,  ii.  105. 
Zoroaster  Sigsbeei,  ii.  105. 
Zygodactyla,  i.  177. 


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